Calliophis intestinalis
The banded Malayan coral snake
The banded Malayan coral snake
The brighter and more vibrant the color is in the animal kingdom, the more poisonous or venomous the animal can be. Always remind ourself see no touch and just enjoy the species how the way it is when we cross path with it.
There are 16 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus) all in different countries.
Calliophis is a genus of venomous elapid snakes,
one of several known commonly as oriental coral snakes or Asian coral snakes.
Coral snakes are not poisonous. Instead, they are highly venomous and very dangerous to humans, they have one of the most potent venoms in the world, next to a black mamba.
Yet, unlike most venomous snakes, they are considered less dangerous than many snake species because the way coral snakes deliver their venom is less effective than others.
Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season.
Coral snakes bite with their sharp fangs. But unlike most venomous snakes, the coral snake’s fangs cannot be retracted and are relatively weak.
Coral snakes cannot easily penetrate through human skin, especially through leather boots due to their fixed fangs and tiny mouth.
Their venom can be highly toxic, but they cannot effectively deliver a copious amount of venom in one bite, making their venom less deadly.
Compared to other venomous snakes, coral snake bites do not usually show injury or significant tissue damage. When coral snakes bite, they hold on, giving rise to the popular myth that they must chew to envenomate.
Since their fangs are relatively short, weak, and fixed to the roof of their mouth, they may hold on to their prey or adversary for some time to deliver the venom effectively.
Bites from coral snakes can result in muscular paralysis. While their venom is not delivered as effectively as other deadly snakes, coral snakes can still be dangerous to humans because of the symptoms their bites can bring.
Coral snake bites can be extremely painful and can cause muscular paralysis. The coral snake’s venom is one of the most potent venoms in the animal world because it contains powerful neurotoxins.
Coral snake bites can bring intense pain, and if left medically unattended, it can even lead to cardiac arrest.
The neurotoxins are responsible for the rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in the coral snake’s smaller prey.
In humans, coral snake bite symptoms can appear a few hours after the bite, including swelling.
Sometimes, coral snake bite symptoms can be delayed up to 12 hours, making people think that there might have been no envenomation that happened. But when left untreated by an antivenom, the neurotoxins will begin to disrupt the nervous system, interrupting connections between the brain and the muscles.
Then, more severe symptoms may develop, such as:
• Slurred speech
• Intense pain
• Double vision
• Muscular paralysis
• Signs of shock
• Change in skin color
• Headache
• Nausea and vomiting
• Convulsions
• Drooping eyelids or ptosis
• Stomach pain
• Difficulty swallowing
• Respiratory or cardiac failure
Neurotoxins block significant neurotransmitters called acetylcholine that help activate body muscles. Envenomation can lead to blockage, resulting in weakness, paralysis, respiratory failure, and even cardiac arrest.
Snakes of the genus Calliophis are semifossoria.
There is wide variability in color ranging from light brown to highly contrasting black and reds. Virtually all specimens will exhibit black and white block patterns on the ventral scales and a bright reddish orange underside of the tail. The head is small in indistinct from the neck.
Calliophis intestinalis, commonly known as the banded Malayan coral snake, is a species of venomous elapid snake endemic to Southeast Asia. It is found in Borneo, Indonesia, Java, Malaysia and Singapore.
C. intestinalis are rather brightly coloured with red or bright orange dorsal stripes along their brown or black bodies. They are generally rather small in size, ranging from 40cm to 60 cm in total length.
The Banded Coral Snake C. intestinalis is not aggressive and are rather shy. They are more likely to get away than bite. But when provoked or handled, they can lash out and attack.
C. intestinalis possesses an extremely toxic venom like other Elapids, when startled or threatened they will twitch wildly and displays its red tail and the brightly colored bands on its undersurface which serve as a warning signal and sometimes bite, and can also dart quickly under leaf litter and flatten body against the ground to hide or make it difficult for predators to pick up.
It should be noted that the venom gland of this species runs from the head down the first third of the body making it capable of delivering a larger dose than its diminutive head size indicates.
This small species possesses a potent venom, and human fatalities from its bite have been recorded.
C. intestinalis had a small head barely distinct from slender body. Dark brown on dorsal surface, with a red stripe along the middle of the back. Ventral surface is white with black bands, underside of the tail bright red with black bands. Highly venomous, but can be confused for Oligodon octolineatus (harmless Striped Kukri Snake).
C. intestinalis is a ground dwelling species inhabits forests areas, and sometimes overgrown areas of parks and gardens, it feeds mainly on other snakes, particularly the tiny Brahminy Blind Snake.
It can be identified by the reddish-orange vertebral stripe, and the red tail. On either side there is a pale lateral stripe. When threatened, the snake turns over to reveal the underside, which is dramatically patterned in black and white.
Four subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies.
• Calliophis intestinalis everetti (Boulenger, 1896)
• Calliophis intestinalis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768)
• Calliophis intestinalis lineata (Gray, 1835)
• Calliophis intestinalis thepassi (Bleeker, 1859)
Nota bene: A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Calliophis
Species: C. intestinalis
Binomial name Calliophis intestinalis
(Laurenti, 1768)
There are 16 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus) all in different countries.
Calliophis is a genus of venomous elapid snakes,
one of several known commonly as oriental coral snakes or Asian coral snakes.
Coral snakes are not poisonous. Instead, they are highly venomous and very dangerous to humans, they have one of the most potent venoms in the world, next to a black mamba.
Yet, unlike most venomous snakes, they are considered less dangerous than many snake species because the way coral snakes deliver their venom is less effective than others.
Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season.
Coral snakes bite with their sharp fangs. But unlike most venomous snakes, the coral snake’s fangs cannot be retracted and are relatively weak.
Coral snakes cannot easily penetrate through human skin, especially through leather boots due to their fixed fangs and tiny mouth.
Their venom can be highly toxic, but they cannot effectively deliver a copious amount of venom in one bite, making their venom less deadly.
Compared to other venomous snakes, coral snake bites do not usually show injury or significant tissue damage. When coral snakes bite, they hold on, giving rise to the popular myth that they must chew to envenomate.
Since their fangs are relatively short, weak, and fixed to the roof of their mouth, they may hold on to their prey or adversary for some time to deliver the venom effectively.
Bites from coral snakes can result in muscular paralysis. While their venom is not delivered as effectively as other deadly snakes, coral snakes can still be dangerous to humans because of the symptoms their bites can bring.
Coral snake bites can be extremely painful and can cause muscular paralysis. The coral snake’s venom is one of the most potent venoms in the animal world because it contains powerful neurotoxins.
Coral snake bites can bring intense pain, and if left medically unattended, it can even lead to cardiac arrest.
The neurotoxins are responsible for the rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in the coral snake’s smaller prey.
In humans, coral snake bite symptoms can appear a few hours after the bite, including swelling.
Sometimes, coral snake bite symptoms can be delayed up to 12 hours, making people think that there might have been no envenomation that happened. But when left untreated by an antivenom, the neurotoxins will begin to disrupt the nervous system, interrupting connections between the brain and the muscles.
Then, more severe symptoms may develop, such as:
• Slurred speech
• Intense pain
• Double vision
• Muscular paralysis
• Signs of shock
• Change in skin color
• Headache
• Nausea and vomiting
• Convulsions
• Drooping eyelids or ptosis
• Stomach pain
• Difficulty swallowing
• Respiratory or cardiac failure
Neurotoxins block significant neurotransmitters called acetylcholine that help activate body muscles. Envenomation can lead to blockage, resulting in weakness, paralysis, respiratory failure, and even cardiac arrest.
Snakes of the genus Calliophis are semifossoria.
There is wide variability in color ranging from light brown to highly contrasting black and reds. Virtually all specimens will exhibit black and white block patterns on the ventral scales and a bright reddish orange underside of the tail. The head is small in indistinct from the neck.
Calliophis intestinalis, commonly known as the banded Malayan coral snake, is a species of venomous elapid snake endemic to Southeast Asia. It is found in Borneo, Indonesia, Java, Malaysia and Singapore.
C. intestinalis are rather brightly coloured with red or bright orange dorsal stripes along their brown or black bodies. They are generally rather small in size, ranging from 40cm to 60 cm in total length.
The Banded Coral Snake C. intestinalis is not aggressive and are rather shy. They are more likely to get away than bite. But when provoked or handled, they can lash out and attack.
C. intestinalis possesses an extremely toxic venom like other Elapids, when startled or threatened they will twitch wildly and displays its red tail and the brightly colored bands on its undersurface which serve as a warning signal and sometimes bite, and can also dart quickly under leaf litter and flatten body against the ground to hide or make it difficult for predators to pick up.
It should be noted that the venom gland of this species runs from the head down the first third of the body making it capable of delivering a larger dose than its diminutive head size indicates.
This small species possesses a potent venom, and human fatalities from its bite have been recorded.
C. intestinalis had a small head barely distinct from slender body. Dark brown on dorsal surface, with a red stripe along the middle of the back. Ventral surface is white with black bands, underside of the tail bright red with black bands. Highly venomous, but can be confused for Oligodon octolineatus (harmless Striped Kukri Snake).
C. intestinalis is a ground dwelling species inhabits forests areas, and sometimes overgrown areas of parks and gardens, it feeds mainly on other snakes, particularly the tiny Brahminy Blind Snake.
It can be identified by the reddish-orange vertebral stripe, and the red tail. On either side there is a pale lateral stripe. When threatened, the snake turns over to reveal the underside, which is dramatically patterned in black and white.
Four subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies.
• Calliophis intestinalis everetti (Boulenger, 1896)
• Calliophis intestinalis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768)
• Calliophis intestinalis lineata (Gray, 1835)
• Calliophis intestinalis thepassi (Bleeker, 1859)
Nota bene: A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Calliophis
Species: C. intestinalis
Binomial name Calliophis intestinalis
(Laurenti, 1768)
Calliophis bivirgatus
Blue Malayan Coral Snake
Blue Malayan Coral Snake
Calliophis is a genus of venomous elapid snakes, one of several known commonly as oriental coral snakes or Asian coral snakes. Snakes of the genus Calliophis are semifossorial.
Calliophis bivirgatus is a species of snake in the family Elapidae known commonly as the blue coral snake or blue Malayan coral snake. It is native to Southeast Asia.
This terrestrial snake occurs in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Burma. It lives at 100 to 1,100 metres (300 to 3,600 ft) in elevation.
There are three subspecies:
C. b. bivirgatus – Indonesia.
C. b. flaviceps – Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and Burma.
C. b. tetrataenia – Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
This species Calliophis bivirgatus was assigned to the new world coral snake genus Maticora until
phylogenetic studies revealed this species to be nested within the tropical coral snake species clade Calliophis and sister species to Calliophis intestinalis, the banded Malaysian coral snake.
This is a medium-sized coral snake with a slender body. The adult can reach 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) long.
It has a red head, tail and belly. The back is dark blue to black in color, and it usually has a large blue or white stripe on each flank.
The snake, especially when juvenile, is often confused with the pink-headed reed snake (Calamaria schlegeli) as they share similar habitat and appearance. But the latter is much smaller, reaching a maximum length of 50 cm (20 in).
The reed snake is nonvenomous, while the coral snake is potentially lethal. They also are very similar to another venomous snake, the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps).
C. bivirgatus is considered semi-fossorial and is found in the leaf litter of primary and secondary forests. It preys on other snakes. When threatened it usually flees, but it may remain in place with its red tail erect as a defensive message.
The Blue Malayan Coral Snake (Calliophis bivirgatus)
is a beautiful, but highly venomous, front-fanged elapid. It inhabits primary and secondary forest, in lowland and lower montane areas.
In common with many other elapids in Southeast Asia, its primary food source is other snakes.
C. bivirgatus dwells amongst the leaf-litter on the forest floor, but seems to emerge early to mid-morning especially when night-time rain has made the leaf litter wet.
It is instantly recognisable by its red head, tail and belly. The dorsal surface is dark blue to black, and most populations have a broad blue stripe on each flank. Care should be taken not to mistake this species for the Pink-headed Reed Snake Calamaria schlegeli.
This species Calliophis bivirgatus has unusually long venom glands, extending to 25% of the length of the body.
Unlike other snakes of the family Elapidae, its venom does not contain a neurotoxin. The toxic element is instead a unique cytotoxin called calliotoxin that
causes near instantaneous paralysis by blocking the victims sodium channels.
The venom also contains phosphodiesterases, which promote the release of adenosine, causing in turn hypotension, inflammation, and neurotransmitter blockade in prey items and other bite victims.
This ability is especially important as their prey consists mostly of other venomous snakes. There is no known antidote, though there is hope that the venom may eventually prove useful in the management of chronic pain in humans.
While all venomous snake bites are a serious worry, most take longer than you'd expect to kill a fully grown human. That's because venom typically works by slowing down the body's vital systems until the victim drifts off to death.
But the blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgata) is different. These beautifully coloured snakes from South East Asia have a venom that's so powerful, it can trigger all of the victim's nerves to fire at once, instantly trigging full body spasms, paralysis, and a quick, horrifying death.
Now, researchers from Australia have fully analysed this crazy and unique venom, and the good news is they think it might lead to better pain treatments in the future.
These snakes are 'killer's killers'. They specialise in preying on other venomous snakes, including young king cobras.
With its combination of electric blue stripes and neon red head and tail, the blue coral snake is arguably one of the world's most striking species of snake. It also has the biggest venom glands in the world, extending over a quarter the length of its body.
Blue coral snakes typically grow to be about 1.8 metres in length (5.9 feet) and stay pretty thin their entire lives. The snakes' venom has caused two reported human deaths over the past century, and there's currently no anti-venom for their bite. But the good news is they generally tend to avoid humans where possible.
The reason their venom is so ridiculously potent is because the snakes love to eat animals that are also deadly, such as cobras, meaning that if they had a weaker venom that operated like other snakes' venom, they would open themselves up to the possibility of dying at every meal.
So the blue coral snakes have evolved a type of venom that causes their prey to instantly freeze with muscle spasms, paralysing their prey in this manner, much like how a spider or scorpion uses venom, allows them to take control of the situation which is pretty important.
Their blazingly fast venom does not kill immediately. Instead, it turns on all the nerves of their fast-moving prey who are also potential predators at one time, almost instantly resulting in a frozen state.
While previous research has shown that this is how blue coral snakes hunt, it was unclear how the venom could be so potent.
After analysing the chemical makeup of the venom, the team identified a new type of toxin called calliotoxin.
A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word toxic.
Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological
macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors.
Toxins vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses.
Toxins are substances created by plants and animals that are poisonous (toxic) to humans. Toxins may also include some medicines that are helpful in small doses, but poisonous in large amounts.
Most toxins that cause problems in humans come from germs such as bacteria. Other toxins that cause problems include metals, such as lead, and certain chemicals in the environment.
Calliotoxin works by attacking the prey's sodium channels, the pathways that turn nerves on and off.
Calliotoxin is a short chained neurotoxin that causes the victim's sodium channels to have delayed inactivation, causing them to remain open. This causes all of the neurons to fire at once and producing complete physical paralysis and a rapid death.
The snake's venom turns these channels on and keeps them on, causing paralysis to take over the body by 'frying' the nervous system. This is the first time a snake has been shown to use this strategy which is more similar to the venom of cone snails or scorpions.
There is no known antidote, though it is hoped that the venom may eventually become useful in creating painkillers for the management of chronic pain in humans.
Some animals cause their prey's nerves to become fried by a massive shock to the system," Fry explains. "A cone snail instantly paralyses a fish into a rigid death mask, fully tensing the muscles in a tetanus-like spasm, this keeps the fish from escaping the immobile snail. Now it has been shown there is a snake that kills the same way.
Understanding sodium channel disruption has been a long-term pursuit of pharmaceutical researchers, because it's thought that it could hold the keys to unlocking better pain treatments for those with chronic ailments.
So now that researchers know that blue coral snakes produce a venom that affects these channels, the team hopes that their findings might lead to better pain medicine down the road.
This venom hits a particular type of sodium channel that is important for the treatment of pain in humans, Fry said. "This is another in the long line of useful discoveries from venom that could benefit human health.
The bad news is that blue coral snakes are becoming rarer in the wild. The team reports that up to 80 percent of the snake's natural habitat has been destroyed by human development.
Hopefully, researchers can do something to save these beautiful snakes, because there are still many unknowns to be figured out, including how they could better our understanding of human health.
The team's work was published in Toxins.
By JOSH HRALA
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Calliophis
Species: C. bivirgatus
Binomial name Calliophis bivirgatus
(F. Boie, 1827)
Calliophis bivirgatus is a species of snake in the family Elapidae known commonly as the blue coral snake or blue Malayan coral snake. It is native to Southeast Asia.
This terrestrial snake occurs in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Burma. It lives at 100 to 1,100 metres (300 to 3,600 ft) in elevation.
There are three subspecies:
C. b. bivirgatus – Indonesia.
C. b. flaviceps – Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and Burma.
C. b. tetrataenia – Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
This species Calliophis bivirgatus was assigned to the new world coral snake genus Maticora until
phylogenetic studies revealed this species to be nested within the tropical coral snake species clade Calliophis and sister species to Calliophis intestinalis, the banded Malaysian coral snake.
This is a medium-sized coral snake with a slender body. The adult can reach 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) long.
It has a red head, tail and belly. The back is dark blue to black in color, and it usually has a large blue or white stripe on each flank.
The snake, especially when juvenile, is often confused with the pink-headed reed snake (Calamaria schlegeli) as they share similar habitat and appearance. But the latter is much smaller, reaching a maximum length of 50 cm (20 in).
The reed snake is nonvenomous, while the coral snake is potentially lethal. They also are very similar to another venomous snake, the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps).
C. bivirgatus is considered semi-fossorial and is found in the leaf litter of primary and secondary forests. It preys on other snakes. When threatened it usually flees, but it may remain in place with its red tail erect as a defensive message.
The Blue Malayan Coral Snake (Calliophis bivirgatus)
is a beautiful, but highly venomous, front-fanged elapid. It inhabits primary and secondary forest, in lowland and lower montane areas.
In common with many other elapids in Southeast Asia, its primary food source is other snakes.
C. bivirgatus dwells amongst the leaf-litter on the forest floor, but seems to emerge early to mid-morning especially when night-time rain has made the leaf litter wet.
It is instantly recognisable by its red head, tail and belly. The dorsal surface is dark blue to black, and most populations have a broad blue stripe on each flank. Care should be taken not to mistake this species for the Pink-headed Reed Snake Calamaria schlegeli.
This species Calliophis bivirgatus has unusually long venom glands, extending to 25% of the length of the body.
Unlike other snakes of the family Elapidae, its venom does not contain a neurotoxin. The toxic element is instead a unique cytotoxin called calliotoxin that
causes near instantaneous paralysis by blocking the victims sodium channels.
The venom also contains phosphodiesterases, which promote the release of adenosine, causing in turn hypotension, inflammation, and neurotransmitter blockade in prey items and other bite victims.
This ability is especially important as their prey consists mostly of other venomous snakes. There is no known antidote, though there is hope that the venom may eventually prove useful in the management of chronic pain in humans.
While all venomous snake bites are a serious worry, most take longer than you'd expect to kill a fully grown human. That's because venom typically works by slowing down the body's vital systems until the victim drifts off to death.
But the blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgata) is different. These beautifully coloured snakes from South East Asia have a venom that's so powerful, it can trigger all of the victim's nerves to fire at once, instantly trigging full body spasms, paralysis, and a quick, horrifying death.
Now, researchers from Australia have fully analysed this crazy and unique venom, and the good news is they think it might lead to better pain treatments in the future.
These snakes are 'killer's killers'. They specialise in preying on other venomous snakes, including young king cobras.
With its combination of electric blue stripes and neon red head and tail, the blue coral snake is arguably one of the world's most striking species of snake. It also has the biggest venom glands in the world, extending over a quarter the length of its body.
Blue coral snakes typically grow to be about 1.8 metres in length (5.9 feet) and stay pretty thin their entire lives. The snakes' venom has caused two reported human deaths over the past century, and there's currently no anti-venom for their bite. But the good news is they generally tend to avoid humans where possible.
The reason their venom is so ridiculously potent is because the snakes love to eat animals that are also deadly, such as cobras, meaning that if they had a weaker venom that operated like other snakes' venom, they would open themselves up to the possibility of dying at every meal.
So the blue coral snakes have evolved a type of venom that causes their prey to instantly freeze with muscle spasms, paralysing their prey in this manner, much like how a spider or scorpion uses venom, allows them to take control of the situation which is pretty important.
Their blazingly fast venom does not kill immediately. Instead, it turns on all the nerves of their fast-moving prey who are also potential predators at one time, almost instantly resulting in a frozen state.
While previous research has shown that this is how blue coral snakes hunt, it was unclear how the venom could be so potent.
After analysing the chemical makeup of the venom, the team identified a new type of toxin called calliotoxin.
A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word toxic.
Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological
macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors.
Toxins vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses.
Toxins are substances created by plants and animals that are poisonous (toxic) to humans. Toxins may also include some medicines that are helpful in small doses, but poisonous in large amounts.
Most toxins that cause problems in humans come from germs such as bacteria. Other toxins that cause problems include metals, such as lead, and certain chemicals in the environment.
Calliotoxin works by attacking the prey's sodium channels, the pathways that turn nerves on and off.
Calliotoxin is a short chained neurotoxin that causes the victim's sodium channels to have delayed inactivation, causing them to remain open. This causes all of the neurons to fire at once and producing complete physical paralysis and a rapid death.
The snake's venom turns these channels on and keeps them on, causing paralysis to take over the body by 'frying' the nervous system. This is the first time a snake has been shown to use this strategy which is more similar to the venom of cone snails or scorpions.
There is no known antidote, though it is hoped that the venom may eventually become useful in creating painkillers for the management of chronic pain in humans.
Some animals cause their prey's nerves to become fried by a massive shock to the system," Fry explains. "A cone snail instantly paralyses a fish into a rigid death mask, fully tensing the muscles in a tetanus-like spasm, this keeps the fish from escaping the immobile snail. Now it has been shown there is a snake that kills the same way.
Understanding sodium channel disruption has been a long-term pursuit of pharmaceutical researchers, because it's thought that it could hold the keys to unlocking better pain treatments for those with chronic ailments.
So now that researchers know that blue coral snakes produce a venom that affects these channels, the team hopes that their findings might lead to better pain medicine down the road.
This venom hits a particular type of sodium channel that is important for the treatment of pain in humans, Fry said. "This is another in the long line of useful discoveries from venom that could benefit human health.
The bad news is that blue coral snakes are becoming rarer in the wild. The team reports that up to 80 percent of the snake's natural habitat has been destroyed by human development.
Hopefully, researchers can do something to save these beautiful snakes, because there are still many unknowns to be figured out, including how they could better our understanding of human health.
The team's work was published in Toxins.
By JOSH HRALA
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Calliophis
Species: C. bivirgatus
Binomial name Calliophis bivirgatus
(F. Boie, 1827)
Equatorial Spitting Cobra
Highly Venomous
Highly Venomous
Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Black spitting Cobra)
Highly venomous species
The Equatorial Spitting Cobra, or Sumatran Cobra, Naja sumatrana is commonly encountered in lowland, secondary, disturbed habitats : the species has adapted to heavily disturbed habitats in towns and villages. It appears to be less abundant in intact, primary lowland forests.
In Singapore, where it is called the Black Spitting Cobra, it is often encountered in leafy suburbs and occasionally in high density housing estates. When not active these snakes may retreat to cooler, sheltered places such as behind household clutter in gardens, or in cavities behind open drains and garden walls.
This is a highly venomous species which should be treated with caution. Typically this snake prefers to avoid confrontation and is not considered 'aggressive', however large adults will stand erect, expand their hood and hiss loudly if feeling threatened. If the perceived attacker does not back off from this threat display the snake will then attempt to spray venom into the eyes of its tormentor. Unless such venom is washed away immediately, permanent damage to the tissues surrounding the eye can occur. Envenomation through a bite from this species may result in death.
In most of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo this snake is black to bluish-black in colour, with pale markings in the throat area particularly in juveniles. In other parts of the Malay Peninsula, particularly the northern areas, and Sumatra and adjacent islands the species is brown in colour. Some populations may possess narrow, pale bars on the dorsum.
The body is thick, and the tail short. The head is distinct from the neck, and the snout is rounded.
Das (2010) describes the species as nocturnal, however in Singapore it appears to be almost exclusively diurnal. Prey items include rats, mice and some species of amphibian, in particular the Asian Toad.
This species occurs in Southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Borneo and parts of the Southern Philippines
Renowned as one of the worlds most dangerous snakes. The Black Spitting Cobra in Singapore is a very versatile, agile, and formidable foe.
Growing to a mere avergae 5 feet ( 1.5m ) in length, the Spitting Cobra is more deadly than a snake which bites.
Not aggressive by nature, but will attack quite readily If agitated or frightened. Its usual habitats are forests and rural areas, but can now be found occasionally in outbuildings and garages.
The Cobra will spit its' venom at great speed and to a distance of almost 2 meters. The snakes prey is blinded by the venom making it easier to catch.
The venom is neurotoxic, which attacks the nervous system. If the spitted venom enters the eyes, human victims may be temporarily or permanently blinded.
Victims whom are bitten will initially feel pain and the bitten area may begin to swell. Heart palpitations, headaches and nausea may rapidly follow soon after the bite is received.
As the venom spreads through the body, breathing may become difficult an the victim may sweat profusely. Organ failure could lead to coma then death if anti venom is not administered quickly.
Family : ELAPIDAE
Species : Naja sumatrana
Maximum Size : 1.6 metres
Highly venomous species
The Equatorial Spitting Cobra, or Sumatran Cobra, Naja sumatrana is commonly encountered in lowland, secondary, disturbed habitats : the species has adapted to heavily disturbed habitats in towns and villages. It appears to be less abundant in intact, primary lowland forests.
In Singapore, where it is called the Black Spitting Cobra, it is often encountered in leafy suburbs and occasionally in high density housing estates. When not active these snakes may retreat to cooler, sheltered places such as behind household clutter in gardens, or in cavities behind open drains and garden walls.
This is a highly venomous species which should be treated with caution. Typically this snake prefers to avoid confrontation and is not considered 'aggressive', however large adults will stand erect, expand their hood and hiss loudly if feeling threatened. If the perceived attacker does not back off from this threat display the snake will then attempt to spray venom into the eyes of its tormentor. Unless such venom is washed away immediately, permanent damage to the tissues surrounding the eye can occur. Envenomation through a bite from this species may result in death.
In most of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo this snake is black to bluish-black in colour, with pale markings in the throat area particularly in juveniles. In other parts of the Malay Peninsula, particularly the northern areas, and Sumatra and adjacent islands the species is brown in colour. Some populations may possess narrow, pale bars on the dorsum.
The body is thick, and the tail short. The head is distinct from the neck, and the snout is rounded.
Das (2010) describes the species as nocturnal, however in Singapore it appears to be almost exclusively diurnal. Prey items include rats, mice and some species of amphibian, in particular the Asian Toad.
This species occurs in Southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Borneo and parts of the Southern Philippines
Renowned as one of the worlds most dangerous snakes. The Black Spitting Cobra in Singapore is a very versatile, agile, and formidable foe.
Growing to a mere avergae 5 feet ( 1.5m ) in length, the Spitting Cobra is more deadly than a snake which bites.
Not aggressive by nature, but will attack quite readily If agitated or frightened. Its usual habitats are forests and rural areas, but can now be found occasionally in outbuildings and garages.
The Cobra will spit its' venom at great speed and to a distance of almost 2 meters. The snakes prey is blinded by the venom making it easier to catch.
The venom is neurotoxic, which attacks the nervous system. If the spitted venom enters the eyes, human victims may be temporarily or permanently blinded.
Victims whom are bitten will initially feel pain and the bitten area may begin to swell. Heart palpitations, headaches and nausea may rapidly follow soon after the bite is received.
As the venom spreads through the body, breathing may become difficult an the victim may sweat profusely. Organ failure could lead to coma then death if anti venom is not administered quickly.
Family : ELAPIDAE
Species : Naja sumatrana
Maximum Size : 1.6 metres
King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), also known as the hamadryad, is a venomous snake species in the family Elapidae, endemic to forests from India through Southeast Asia. It is threatened by habitat destruction and has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. It is the world's longest venomous snake.
Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). It is the sole member of the genus Ophiophagus.
It preys chiefly on other snakes and occasionally on some other vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents.
It is a highly venomous and dangerous snake when agitated or provoked that has a fearsome reputation in its range, although it is typically shy and avoids confrontation with humans when possible. The king cobra is a prominent symbol in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is the national reptile of India.
The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body.
Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.
The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb).
Females captured had a maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb). The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand. It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.
The head of a mature snake can be quite massive and bulky in appearance. Like all snakes, it can expand its jaws to swallow large prey items.
It has proteroglyph dentition, meaning it has two short, fixed fangs in the front of the mouth, which channel venom into the prey. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra. [citation needed] The king cobra typically weighs about 6 kg (13 lb). A captive one at the London Zoo grew to 5.71 m (18.7 ft) before being euthanised upon the outbreak of World War II. The heaviest wild specimen was caught at Royal Island Club in Singapore in 1951, which weighed 12 kg (26 lb) and measured 4.8 m (16 ft). An individual kept at Bronx Zoo weighed 12.7 kg (28 lb) and was 4.4 m (14 ft) long in 1972. [citation needed]
The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.
In northern India, it was recorded in the Garhwal Himalaya in Uttarakhand, in Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim.
In the Eastern Ghats, it occurs from coastal Odisha to Andhra Pradesh.
In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
It also occurs on Baratang Island.
Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth. When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft) away. [citation needed]
Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.
The king cobra's diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, including Indian cobra, banded krait, rat snake, pythons, green whip snake, keelback, banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake. It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails.
In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a clouded monitor. When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and rodents. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey, such as birds and larger rodents, using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.
The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangsand hisses loudly. When biting, it retains its grip for up to eight minutes. Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defence when cornered.
Most victims bitten by king cobras are snake charmers. Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.
It can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.
Growling hiss
The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.
The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leave litter, starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the center and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs. Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Female stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).
The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.
The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years. [citation needed]
The king cobra's venom consists of cytotoxins and neurotoxins, including alpha-neurotoxins and three-finger toxins. Other components have cardiotoxic effects.
It can deliver up to 420 mg (6.5 gr) venom in dry weight per bite, with a LD50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection, 1.5 to 2.18 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection, and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.
The toxins affect the victim's central nervous system, resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventually paralysis. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation. Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia
in mammals. Large quantities of antivenom may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.
Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralize venom of the king cobra. In Thailand, a concoction of turmeric root has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.
Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered of medical importance.
Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement. A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species. Department of Clinical Toxinology in University of Adelaide gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50–60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.
In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by poaching for its meat, skin and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.
The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam.
In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Subfamily: Elapinae
Genus: Ophiophagus Günther, 1864
Species: O. hannah
Binomial name
Ophiophagus hannah
Cantor, 1836
Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). It is the sole member of the genus Ophiophagus.
It preys chiefly on other snakes and occasionally on some other vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents.
It is a highly venomous and dangerous snake when agitated or provoked that has a fearsome reputation in its range, although it is typically shy and avoids confrontation with humans when possible. The king cobra is a prominent symbol in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is the national reptile of India.
The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body.
Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.
The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb).
Females captured had a maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb). The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand. It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.
The head of a mature snake can be quite massive and bulky in appearance. Like all snakes, it can expand its jaws to swallow large prey items.
It has proteroglyph dentition, meaning it has two short, fixed fangs in the front of the mouth, which channel venom into the prey. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra. [citation needed] The king cobra typically weighs about 6 kg (13 lb). A captive one at the London Zoo grew to 5.71 m (18.7 ft) before being euthanised upon the outbreak of World War II. The heaviest wild specimen was caught at Royal Island Club in Singapore in 1951, which weighed 12 kg (26 lb) and measured 4.8 m (16 ft). An individual kept at Bronx Zoo weighed 12.7 kg (28 lb) and was 4.4 m (14 ft) long in 1972. [citation needed]
The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.
In northern India, it was recorded in the Garhwal Himalaya in Uttarakhand, in Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim.
In the Eastern Ghats, it occurs from coastal Odisha to Andhra Pradesh.
In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
It also occurs on Baratang Island.
Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth. When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft) away. [citation needed]
Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.
The king cobra's diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, including Indian cobra, banded krait, rat snake, pythons, green whip snake, keelback, banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake. It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails.
In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a clouded monitor. When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and rodents. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey, such as birds and larger rodents, using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.
The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangsand hisses loudly. When biting, it retains its grip for up to eight minutes. Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defence when cornered.
Most victims bitten by king cobras are snake charmers. Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.
It can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.
Growling hiss
The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.
The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leave litter, starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the center and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs. Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Female stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).
The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.
The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years. [citation needed]
The king cobra's venom consists of cytotoxins and neurotoxins, including alpha-neurotoxins and three-finger toxins. Other components have cardiotoxic effects.
It can deliver up to 420 mg (6.5 gr) venom in dry weight per bite, with a LD50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection, 1.5 to 2.18 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection, and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.
The toxins affect the victim's central nervous system, resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventually paralysis. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation. Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia
in mammals. Large quantities of antivenom may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.
Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralize venom of the king cobra. In Thailand, a concoction of turmeric root has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.
Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered of medical importance.
Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement. A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species. Department of Clinical Toxinology in University of Adelaide gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50–60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.
In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by poaching for its meat, skin and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.
The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam.
In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Subfamily: Elapinae
Genus: Ophiophagus Günther, 1864
Species: O. hannah
Binomial name
Ophiophagus hannah
Cantor, 1836