Anolis sagrei
brown anole
brown anole
Anolis is a genus of anoles, iguanian lizards in the family Dactyloidae, native to the Americas. With more than 425 species, it represents the world's most species-rich amniote tetrapod genus, although many of these have been proposed to be moved to other genera, in which case only about 45 Anolis species remain.
Previously, it was classified under the family Polychrotidae that contained all the anoles, as well as Polychrus, but recent studies place it in the Dactyloidae.
The brown anole (Anolis sagrei), also known commonly as the Cuban brown anole, or De la Sagra's anole is a species of lizard in the family Dactyloidae.
The species is native to Cuba and the Bahamas.
It has been widely introduced elsewhere, via the importation and exportation of plants where the anole would lay eggs in the soil of the pots, and is now found in Florida and as far north in the United States as southern Georgia, Texas, Louisiana, Tennessee,
Mississippi, Alabama, Hawaii, and Southern California. It has also been introduced to other Caribbean islands, Mexico, and Taiwan.
This species is highly invasive. In its introduced range, it reaches exceptionally high population densities, is capable of expanding its range very quickly, and both outcompetes and consumes many species of native lizards, like the green anole.
The brown anole's introduction into the United States in the early 1970s has altered the behavior and negatively affected populations of the native Carolina anole (Anolis carolinensis, also known as the green anole), which have since generally been relegated to the treetops.
The specific name, sagrei, is in honor of Spanish botanist Ramón de la Sagra.
The brown anole is normally a light brown color with darker brown to black markings on its back, and several tan to light color lines on its sides. Like other anoles, it can change color, in this case a darker brown to black. Its dewlap ranges from yellow to orange-red.
Brown anoles are typically 5.0 to 8.5 inches long. The males can grow as large as their male Carolina anole counterparts, around 17.8–20.3 cm (7.0–8.0 in) long, with some individuals topping 22.9 cm (9.0 in).
The females are also around the size of female Carolina anoles, which ranges from 7.6–15 cm (3.0–5.9 in). The male brown anole's head is smaller than that of the male Carolina anole.
The brown anole's tail has a ridge that travels all the way up to behind the head, a feature that the Carolina anole lacks.
Female anolis lizards exhibit heritable polymorphism
in their dorsal patterning. A study in Gainesville, Florida reported that one-third of A. sagrei females displayed a male-like chevron dorsal pattern, while other females had a striped dorsal pattern with continuous variation.
The brown anole tends to live on the ground, avoiding trees and preferring to live in smaller plants and shrubs and is found in both urban and suburban areas.
The brown anole can be found basking when the
weather is warm and when the weather is cold they prefer sheltered areas. Brown anoles are less arboreal than the green anoles which are frequently found living in trees, on the ground, or in low vegetation.
While the brown anole is an invasive species in the United States, they likely do provide some benefits to their ecosystems. Because they eat predominantly arthropods, they may keep populations of spiders at appropriate levels. Some research suggests that local spider populations depend directly on the population of the brown anole.
In habitats they share with the green anole, the brown anole dominates and shrinks the population of the green anole. They also occasionally eat hatchlings of the green anole, further putting pressure on their populations.
The brown anole belongs to the family and genus, Datyloidae and Anolis, respectively.
The most closely related species to Anolis sagrei is Anolis nelsoni, also called Nelson's anole.
The brown anole has a shorter snout length than the green anole. The green anole, or Anolis carolinensis, is green or light brown patterned.
Brown anoles feed on small arthropods such as crickets, moths, ants, grasshoppers, cockroaches, mealworms, beetles, flies, earwigs, butterflies,
spiders, waxworms, amphipods, and isopods, it also feed on other types of invertebrates such as earthworms and snails.
They may also eat other lizards, such as skinks, geckos, and the Carolina anole, lizard eggs and hatchlings (including members of their species), and their own molted skin and detached tails. If near water, they eat aquatic arthropods or small fish – nearly any prey that will fit in their mouths.
Occasionally, individuals will also consume figs and plant material; it might be interpreted as a hydration mechanism or accidental ingestion.
In a given habitat, female brown anoles reproduce
in the warmer parts of the year. The brood size of a single female brown anole is one egg, which it lays in damp environments. The female lays its eggs roughly 2 weeks apart from each other, resulting in a total of 15 to 18 eggs in a single breeding season.
The breeding season of a female extends slightly longer than that of a male, as the female is capable of storing sperm for a short time.
When a juvenile anole is born, usually in June, it is completely independent from its parents. Sexual maturation of both males and females occurs within a year of hatching, so an individual can participate in the mating season following its birth.
When a female anole is prepared for mating, it begins by making itself visible to the male whose territory it is in. When mating occurs, the male grabs on to the back on the females neck with its mouth, so prior to mating, a female will bend its neck such that it is more visible and accessible by the male, indicating that it is ready for procreation. If the male decides to reproduce, it will begin mating with the female, which usually lasts from 30 to 60 minutes. Males indicate that they are available for mating by extending their dewlap and bobbing their head.
Male anoles have a flap that extends below their neck called a "dewlap". Dewlap extension occurs alongside a number of behaviors exhibited by the brown anole, namely during courtship.
The coloration of the brown anole allows it to easily blend in with its surroundings, making it difficult for predators to spot.
The brown anole has a detachable tail that can be detached if the anole is grabbed by the tail by a predator or used as a distraction, as it twitches after detaching. The tail grows back afterwards, albeit smaller and a duller color.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Squamata
Suborder : Iguania
Family : Dactyloidae
Genus : Anolis
Species : A. sagrei
Binomial name Anolis sagrei
Duméril and Bibron, 1837
Synonyms
• Norops sagrei
Previously, it was classified under the family Polychrotidae that contained all the anoles, as well as Polychrus, but recent studies place it in the Dactyloidae.
The brown anole (Anolis sagrei), also known commonly as the Cuban brown anole, or De la Sagra's anole is a species of lizard in the family Dactyloidae.
The species is native to Cuba and the Bahamas.
It has been widely introduced elsewhere, via the importation and exportation of plants where the anole would lay eggs in the soil of the pots, and is now found in Florida and as far north in the United States as southern Georgia, Texas, Louisiana, Tennessee,
Mississippi, Alabama, Hawaii, and Southern California. It has also been introduced to other Caribbean islands, Mexico, and Taiwan.
This species is highly invasive. In its introduced range, it reaches exceptionally high population densities, is capable of expanding its range very quickly, and both outcompetes and consumes many species of native lizards, like the green anole.
The brown anole's introduction into the United States in the early 1970s has altered the behavior and negatively affected populations of the native Carolina anole (Anolis carolinensis, also known as the green anole), which have since generally been relegated to the treetops.
The specific name, sagrei, is in honor of Spanish botanist Ramón de la Sagra.
The brown anole is normally a light brown color with darker brown to black markings on its back, and several tan to light color lines on its sides. Like other anoles, it can change color, in this case a darker brown to black. Its dewlap ranges from yellow to orange-red.
Brown anoles are typically 5.0 to 8.5 inches long. The males can grow as large as their male Carolina anole counterparts, around 17.8–20.3 cm (7.0–8.0 in) long, with some individuals topping 22.9 cm (9.0 in).
The females are also around the size of female Carolina anoles, which ranges from 7.6–15 cm (3.0–5.9 in). The male brown anole's head is smaller than that of the male Carolina anole.
The brown anole's tail has a ridge that travels all the way up to behind the head, a feature that the Carolina anole lacks.
Female anolis lizards exhibit heritable polymorphism
in their dorsal patterning. A study in Gainesville, Florida reported that one-third of A. sagrei females displayed a male-like chevron dorsal pattern, while other females had a striped dorsal pattern with continuous variation.
The brown anole tends to live on the ground, avoiding trees and preferring to live in smaller plants and shrubs and is found in both urban and suburban areas.
The brown anole can be found basking when the
weather is warm and when the weather is cold they prefer sheltered areas. Brown anoles are less arboreal than the green anoles which are frequently found living in trees, on the ground, or in low vegetation.
While the brown anole is an invasive species in the United States, they likely do provide some benefits to their ecosystems. Because they eat predominantly arthropods, they may keep populations of spiders at appropriate levels. Some research suggests that local spider populations depend directly on the population of the brown anole.
In habitats they share with the green anole, the brown anole dominates and shrinks the population of the green anole. They also occasionally eat hatchlings of the green anole, further putting pressure on their populations.
The brown anole belongs to the family and genus, Datyloidae and Anolis, respectively.
The most closely related species to Anolis sagrei is Anolis nelsoni, also called Nelson's anole.
The brown anole has a shorter snout length than the green anole. The green anole, or Anolis carolinensis, is green or light brown patterned.
Brown anoles feed on small arthropods such as crickets, moths, ants, grasshoppers, cockroaches, mealworms, beetles, flies, earwigs, butterflies,
spiders, waxworms, amphipods, and isopods, it also feed on other types of invertebrates such as earthworms and snails.
They may also eat other lizards, such as skinks, geckos, and the Carolina anole, lizard eggs and hatchlings (including members of their species), and their own molted skin and detached tails. If near water, they eat aquatic arthropods or small fish – nearly any prey that will fit in their mouths.
Occasionally, individuals will also consume figs and plant material; it might be interpreted as a hydration mechanism or accidental ingestion.
In a given habitat, female brown anoles reproduce
in the warmer parts of the year. The brood size of a single female brown anole is one egg, which it lays in damp environments. The female lays its eggs roughly 2 weeks apart from each other, resulting in a total of 15 to 18 eggs in a single breeding season.
The breeding season of a female extends slightly longer than that of a male, as the female is capable of storing sperm for a short time.
When a juvenile anole is born, usually in June, it is completely independent from its parents. Sexual maturation of both males and females occurs within a year of hatching, so an individual can participate in the mating season following its birth.
When a female anole is prepared for mating, it begins by making itself visible to the male whose territory it is in. When mating occurs, the male grabs on to the back on the females neck with its mouth, so prior to mating, a female will bend its neck such that it is more visible and accessible by the male, indicating that it is ready for procreation. If the male decides to reproduce, it will begin mating with the female, which usually lasts from 30 to 60 minutes. Males indicate that they are available for mating by extending their dewlap and bobbing their head.
Male anoles have a flap that extends below their neck called a "dewlap". Dewlap extension occurs alongside a number of behaviors exhibited by the brown anole, namely during courtship.
The coloration of the brown anole allows it to easily blend in with its surroundings, making it difficult for predators to spot.
The brown anole has a detachable tail that can be detached if the anole is grabbed by the tail by a predator or used as a distraction, as it twitches after detaching. The tail grows back afterwards, albeit smaller and a duller color.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Squamata
Suborder : Iguania
Family : Dactyloidae
Genus : Anolis
Species : A. sagrei
Binomial name Anolis sagrei
Duméril and Bibron, 1837
Synonyms
• Norops sagrei
Heosemys spinosa
spiny turtle
spiny turtle
T7 : 10-11-23
Heosemys is a genus of freshwater turtles ("terrapins" in British English) in the family Geoemydidae (formerly called Bataguridae). The genus Heosemys was split out of the related genus Geoemyda by McDowell in 1964.
The spiny turtle, Heosemys spinosa (In Thai: เต่าจักร, dtao jag) is a South-East Asian
turtle species. It inhabits lowland and hill rainforest, usually dwelling in the vicinity of small streams in hill areas up to 1,000 m above sea level. It is found in Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
The spiny turtle is a medium-sized tortoise with a brown shell and red-spotted head. Also known as the “cog-wheel turtle,” it derives its name from its spiky-edged carapace, marginal scutes, and spiny keel.
As juvenile spiny turtles become adults, the black striped and yellow underside of their shell fades in color. In addition, the juveniles’ serrations, or jagged edges, at the carapace margin decrease in size and become restricted to the carapace’s rear margin. These changes of the spine and carapace serve as evolutionary adaptations attempting to prevent predators from preying on juvenile turtles.
The spiny turtle belongs to the kingdom of Animalia, the order of Testudines, and the genus of Heosemys. The classification of Heosemys incorporates four species: Heosemys annandalii, Heosemys depressa, Heosemys grandis, and Heosemys spinosa, however, relationships between the four are undetermined.
Variation among the Heosemys spinosa is also uncertain, but it has been suggested that there are two types: a “mainland form” dwelling in Malaysia, Thailand, and southern Myanmar, and an “insular form” found in Indonesia and the Philippines, possibly in Brunei and Singapore as well.
Adult spiny turtles’ carapace length usually falls between 175 mm to 220 mm and their mass ranges from 1.5 kg to 2.0 kg.
The spiny turtle buries itself in leaf litter to camouflage during the day and only emerges at night, foraging for food.
While often portrayed as a herbivore, the spiny turtle also eats carrion (carrion refers to the dead and rotting flesh of an animal) and insects alongside fruits and plants.
Fruit from the yin-ngan tree is especially important for the turtle, and in Myanmar, the turtle often dwells beneath these trees when the trees are fruiting. Similarly, captive juvenile spiny turtles consume fruit salads multiple times a week, particularly those containing tomatoes.
At the Kubah National Park in Sarawak, analysis of fecal content revealed the turtles’ role as seed dispersal agents, for their fecal matter contained five different seed types. Arthropods and hair were also found in the samples, suggesting consumption of mammals and other animals.
H. spinosa mating occurs in December and February, and appears to be triggered by rain. Regarding nesting behavior in the wild, the female lays one or two eggs in a nest and produces up to three clutches annually.
In captivity, it has been observed that spraying males with water results in them chasing females and attempting to mount. To ease the delivery of the egg, a hinge forms in the female turtle’s plastron before it is laid. The egg is usually covered with a partial layer of substrate, and researchers have found eggs laid in a so-called “protected spot” underneath cork bark or thick foliage.
Many attempts at reproduction in captivity have proved unsuccessful due to the eggs’ shells being thick and prone to bursting if the substrate is too damp.
The first successful copulation in captivity occurred in 1991 at Zoo Atlanta, where incubation lasted for 106 days in a medium of peat moss, long fiber peat moss, and damp sand. For the first 35 days, the egg was incubated at a temperature of 28-30°C, and for the last 71 days, the temperature was decreased to 26-28°C.
Labeled as “vulnerable” by the IUCN in 1996, the spiny turtle became endangered in 2000 when the supply of the species declined by a half in the Chinese food market.
It is suggested that the main threat to the spiny turtle has been the destruction of natural forests to create oil palm plantations, common in southern Myanmar and the participation in the international pet trade and its use in traditional Chinese medicine has also led to its decline. However, numerous conservation efforts have been undertaken because the turtle is protected by the Philippines Wildlife Act and other initiatives. A spiny turtle hatching at the Chester Zoo in the UK in 2013 has also given hope to conservationists that the species may be retained.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines
Suborder : Cryptodira
Superfamily : Testudinoidea
Family : Geoemydidae
Genus : Heosemys
Species : H. spinosa
Binomial name Heosemys spinosa
(Gray, 1830)
Synonyms
• Emys spinosae Gray, 1830
• Geoemyda spinosa Gray, 1834
• Clemmys (Clemmys) spinosa Fitzinger, 1835
• Heosemys spinosa Stejneger, 1902
The spiny turtle, Heosemys spinosa (In Thai: เต่าจักร, dtao jag) is a South-East Asian
turtle species. It inhabits lowland and hill rainforest, usually dwelling in the vicinity of small streams in hill areas up to 1,000 m above sea level. It is found in Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
The spiny turtle is a medium-sized tortoise with a brown shell and red-spotted head. Also known as the “cog-wheel turtle,” it derives its name from its spiky-edged carapace, marginal scutes, and spiny keel.
As juvenile spiny turtles become adults, the black striped and yellow underside of their shell fades in color. In addition, the juveniles’ serrations, or jagged edges, at the carapace margin decrease in size and become restricted to the carapace’s rear margin. These changes of the spine and carapace serve as evolutionary adaptations attempting to prevent predators from preying on juvenile turtles.
The spiny turtle belongs to the kingdom of Animalia, the order of Testudines, and the genus of Heosemys. The classification of Heosemys incorporates four species: Heosemys annandalii, Heosemys depressa, Heosemys grandis, and Heosemys spinosa, however, relationships between the four are undetermined.
Variation among the Heosemys spinosa is also uncertain, but it has been suggested that there are two types: a “mainland form” dwelling in Malaysia, Thailand, and southern Myanmar, and an “insular form” found in Indonesia and the Philippines, possibly in Brunei and Singapore as well.
Adult spiny turtles’ carapace length usually falls between 175 mm to 220 mm and their mass ranges from 1.5 kg to 2.0 kg.
The spiny turtle buries itself in leaf litter to camouflage during the day and only emerges at night, foraging for food.
While often portrayed as a herbivore, the spiny turtle also eats carrion (carrion refers to the dead and rotting flesh of an animal) and insects alongside fruits and plants.
Fruit from the yin-ngan tree is especially important for the turtle, and in Myanmar, the turtle often dwells beneath these trees when the trees are fruiting. Similarly, captive juvenile spiny turtles consume fruit salads multiple times a week, particularly those containing tomatoes.
At the Kubah National Park in Sarawak, analysis of fecal content revealed the turtles’ role as seed dispersal agents, for their fecal matter contained five different seed types. Arthropods and hair were also found in the samples, suggesting consumption of mammals and other animals.
H. spinosa mating occurs in December and February, and appears to be triggered by rain. Regarding nesting behavior in the wild, the female lays one or two eggs in a nest and produces up to three clutches annually.
In captivity, it has been observed that spraying males with water results in them chasing females and attempting to mount. To ease the delivery of the egg, a hinge forms in the female turtle’s plastron before it is laid. The egg is usually covered with a partial layer of substrate, and researchers have found eggs laid in a so-called “protected spot” underneath cork bark or thick foliage.
Many attempts at reproduction in captivity have proved unsuccessful due to the eggs’ shells being thick and prone to bursting if the substrate is too damp.
The first successful copulation in captivity occurred in 1991 at Zoo Atlanta, where incubation lasted for 106 days in a medium of peat moss, long fiber peat moss, and damp sand. For the first 35 days, the egg was incubated at a temperature of 28-30°C, and for the last 71 days, the temperature was decreased to 26-28°C.
Labeled as “vulnerable” by the IUCN in 1996, the spiny turtle became endangered in 2000 when the supply of the species declined by a half in the Chinese food market.
It is suggested that the main threat to the spiny turtle has been the destruction of natural forests to create oil palm plantations, common in southern Myanmar and the participation in the international pet trade and its use in traditional Chinese medicine has also led to its decline. However, numerous conservation efforts have been undertaken because the turtle is protected by the Philippines Wildlife Act and other initiatives. A spiny turtle hatching at the Chester Zoo in the UK in 2013 has also given hope to conservationists that the species may be retained.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines
Suborder : Cryptodira
Superfamily : Testudinoidea
Family : Geoemydidae
Genus : Heosemys
Species : H. spinosa
Binomial name Heosemys spinosa
(Gray, 1830)
Synonyms
• Emys spinosae Gray, 1830
• Geoemyda spinosa Gray, 1834
• Clemmys (Clemmys) spinosa Fitzinger, 1835
• Heosemys spinosa Stejneger, 1902
Trachemys scripta elegans
red eared slider
red eared slider
Trachemys is a genus of turtles belonging to the family Emydidae. Members of this genus are native to the Americas, ranging from the Midwestern United States south to northern Argentina, but one subspecies, the red-eared slider (T. scripta elegans), has been introduced worldwide. Species under this genus are commonly referred to as sliders.
The red-eared slider or red-eared terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans) is a subspecies of the pond slider (Trachemys scripta), a semiaquatic turtle belonging to the family Emydidae.
It is the most popular pet turtle in the United States and also across the rest of the world. It is the most invasive turtle and the most commonly traded turtle in the world.
The red-eared slider is native from the Midwestern United States to northern Mexico, but has become established in other places because of pet releases, and has become invasive in many areas where it outcompetes native species. The red-eared slider is included in the list of the world's 100 most invasive species.
The red-eared slider gets its name from the small, red stripe around its ears, or where its ears would be, and from its ability to slide quickly off rocks and logs into the water. This species was previously known as Troost's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist Gerard Troost.
The red-eared slider belongs to the order Testudines, which contains about 250 turtle species. It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta. It was previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans. Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies: T. s. elegans (red-eared slider), T. s. scripta (yellow-bellied slider), and T. s. troostii
(Cumberland slider).
The carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm (16 in) in length, but the typical length ranges from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in).
The females of the species are usually larger than the males. They typically live between 20-30 years, although some individuals can live for more than 70 years. Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity. The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being.
The shell is divided into the upper or dorsal carapace, and the lower, ventral carapace or plastron. The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes, which form the central, elevated portion, pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes, and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace. The rear marginal scutes are notched. The scutes are bony keratinous elements.
The carapace is oval and flattened (especially in the male) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young. The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle. It usually has a dark green background with light and dark, highly variable markings.
In young or recently hatched turtles, it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older, until it is a very dark green, and then turns a shade between brown and olive green. The plastron is always a light yellow with dark, paired, irregular markings in the centre of most scutes.
The plastron is highly variable in pattern. The head, legs, and tail are green with fine, irregular, yellow lines. The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual.
These turtles also have a complete skeletal system, with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail.
The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red-eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name, as the stripe is located behind the eyes, where their (external) ears would be. These stripes may lose their color over time.
Color and vibrance of ear stripe can indicate immune health, with bright red having higher immune response than yellow stripes. Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads.
The red-eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal, instead it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc.
Like other turtles, the species is poikilotherm and thus dependent on the temperature of its environment. For this reason, it needs to sunbathe frequently to warm up and maintain body temperature.
Red-eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex, making distinguishing them difficult. One useful method, however, is to inspect the markings under their carapace, which fade as the turtles age.
Distinguishing the sex of adults is much easier, as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females. Male red-eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces' diameters measure 10 cm (3.9 in) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure about 15 cm.
Both males and females reach sexual maturity at 5–6 years old. Males are normally smaller than females, although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply, as individuals being compared could be of different ages.
Males have longer claws on their front feet than the females, this helps them to hold onto a female during mating, and is used during courtship displays. The males' tails are thicker and longer.
Typically, the cloacal opening of a female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace, while the male's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace. The male's plastron is slightly concave, while that of the female is completely flat. The male's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female's carapace during mating. Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish-olive green melanistic coloration, with very subdued markings. The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent. The female's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life.
The red-eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, in warm climates in the Southeastern United States. Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida. In nature, they inhabit areas with a source of still, warm water, such as ponds, lakes, swamps, creeks, streams, or slow-flowing rivers.
They live in areas of calm water, where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun. Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other. They also require abundant aquatic plants, as these are the adults' main food, although they are omnivores. Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs.
Red-eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic, but as they are cold-blooded, they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature.
Red-eared sliders do not hibernate, but actually brumate, while they become less active, they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air. Brumation can occur to varying degrees.
In the wild, red-eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes. They generally become inactive in October, when temperatures fall below 10 °C (50 °F). During this time, the turtles enter a state of sopor, during which they do not eat or defecate, they remain nearly motionless, and the frequency of their breathing falls.
Individuals usually brumate under water, but they have also been found under banks and rocks, and in hollow stumps. In warmer winter climates, they can become active and come to the surface for basking. When the temperature begins to drop again, however, they quickly return to a brumation state. Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April.
During brumation, T. s. elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks, producing ATP from glycolysis. The turtle's metabolic rate drops dramatically, with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80% to minimize energy requirements. The lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell, preventing acidosis. Red-eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate.
Courtship and mating activities for red-eared sliders usually occur between March and July, and take place under water.
After mating, the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm. She may also have a change of diet, eating only certain foods or not eating as much as she normally would.
A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors. One female can lay up to 5 clutches in the same year, and clutches are usually spaced 12–36 days apart. The time between mating and egg-laying can be days or weeks.
The fertilization and laying can also be in conjunction, with eggs immediately laid based on location and nutrients available. The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg-laying.
This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season, as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female's body in the absence of mating. During the last weeks of gestation, the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground, indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs. The female excavates a hole, using her hind legs, and lays her eggs in it.
Incubation takes 59–112 days. Late-season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring. Just prior to hatching, the egg contains 50% turtle and 50% egg sac.
A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth, which falls out about an hour after hatching. This egg tooth never grows back. Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two. If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready, they will return if possible. When a hatchling decides to leave the shell, it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron.
The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible, and several days later, it will have been absorbed into the turtle's belly. The sac must be absorbed, and does not fall off. The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim. The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days.
Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk – enough to allow air into the turtle's body – results in death. This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason.
An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo's growth by the sac smothering the embryo. If it manages to reach term, the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac, which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death. The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely, and while the opening has not completely healed yet.
The sex of red-eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos' development. Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22–27 °C (72–81 °F), whereas females develop at warmer temperatures. Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines
Suborder : Cryptodira
Superfamily : Testudinoidea
Family : Emydidae
Genus :Trachemys
Species : T. scripta
Subspecies: T. s. elegans
Trinomial name Trachemys scripta elegans
(Wied-Neuwied, 1839)
The red-eared slider or red-eared terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans) is a subspecies of the pond slider (Trachemys scripta), a semiaquatic turtle belonging to the family Emydidae.
It is the most popular pet turtle in the United States and also across the rest of the world. It is the most invasive turtle and the most commonly traded turtle in the world.
The red-eared slider is native from the Midwestern United States to northern Mexico, but has become established in other places because of pet releases, and has become invasive in many areas where it outcompetes native species. The red-eared slider is included in the list of the world's 100 most invasive species.
The red-eared slider gets its name from the small, red stripe around its ears, or where its ears would be, and from its ability to slide quickly off rocks and logs into the water. This species was previously known as Troost's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist Gerard Troost.
The red-eared slider belongs to the order Testudines, which contains about 250 turtle species. It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta. It was previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans. Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies: T. s. elegans (red-eared slider), T. s. scripta (yellow-bellied slider), and T. s. troostii
(Cumberland slider).
The carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm (16 in) in length, but the typical length ranges from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in).
The females of the species are usually larger than the males. They typically live between 20-30 years, although some individuals can live for more than 70 years. Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity. The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being.
The shell is divided into the upper or dorsal carapace, and the lower, ventral carapace or plastron. The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes, which form the central, elevated portion, pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes, and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace. The rear marginal scutes are notched. The scutes are bony keratinous elements.
The carapace is oval and flattened (especially in the male) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young. The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle. It usually has a dark green background with light and dark, highly variable markings.
In young or recently hatched turtles, it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older, until it is a very dark green, and then turns a shade between brown and olive green. The plastron is always a light yellow with dark, paired, irregular markings in the centre of most scutes.
The plastron is highly variable in pattern. The head, legs, and tail are green with fine, irregular, yellow lines. The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual.
These turtles also have a complete skeletal system, with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail.
The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red-eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name, as the stripe is located behind the eyes, where their (external) ears would be. These stripes may lose their color over time.
Color and vibrance of ear stripe can indicate immune health, with bright red having higher immune response than yellow stripes. Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads.
The red-eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal, instead it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc.
Like other turtles, the species is poikilotherm and thus dependent on the temperature of its environment. For this reason, it needs to sunbathe frequently to warm up and maintain body temperature.
Red-eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex, making distinguishing them difficult. One useful method, however, is to inspect the markings under their carapace, which fade as the turtles age.
Distinguishing the sex of adults is much easier, as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females. Male red-eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces' diameters measure 10 cm (3.9 in) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure about 15 cm.
Both males and females reach sexual maturity at 5–6 years old. Males are normally smaller than females, although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply, as individuals being compared could be of different ages.
Males have longer claws on their front feet than the females, this helps them to hold onto a female during mating, and is used during courtship displays. The males' tails are thicker and longer.
Typically, the cloacal opening of a female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace, while the male's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace. The male's plastron is slightly concave, while that of the female is completely flat. The male's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female's carapace during mating. Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish-olive green melanistic coloration, with very subdued markings. The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent. The female's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life.
The red-eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, in warm climates in the Southeastern United States. Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida. In nature, they inhabit areas with a source of still, warm water, such as ponds, lakes, swamps, creeks, streams, or slow-flowing rivers.
They live in areas of calm water, where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun. Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other. They also require abundant aquatic plants, as these are the adults' main food, although they are omnivores. Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs.
Red-eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic, but as they are cold-blooded, they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature.
Red-eared sliders do not hibernate, but actually brumate, while they become less active, they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air. Brumation can occur to varying degrees.
In the wild, red-eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes. They generally become inactive in October, when temperatures fall below 10 °C (50 °F). During this time, the turtles enter a state of sopor, during which they do not eat or defecate, they remain nearly motionless, and the frequency of their breathing falls.
Individuals usually brumate under water, but they have also been found under banks and rocks, and in hollow stumps. In warmer winter climates, they can become active and come to the surface for basking. When the temperature begins to drop again, however, they quickly return to a brumation state. Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April.
During brumation, T. s. elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks, producing ATP from glycolysis. The turtle's metabolic rate drops dramatically, with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80% to minimize energy requirements. The lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell, preventing acidosis. Red-eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate.
Courtship and mating activities for red-eared sliders usually occur between March and July, and take place under water.
After mating, the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm. She may also have a change of diet, eating only certain foods or not eating as much as she normally would.
A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors. One female can lay up to 5 clutches in the same year, and clutches are usually spaced 12–36 days apart. The time between mating and egg-laying can be days or weeks.
The fertilization and laying can also be in conjunction, with eggs immediately laid based on location and nutrients available. The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg-laying.
This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season, as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female's body in the absence of mating. During the last weeks of gestation, the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground, indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs. The female excavates a hole, using her hind legs, and lays her eggs in it.
Incubation takes 59–112 days. Late-season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring. Just prior to hatching, the egg contains 50% turtle and 50% egg sac.
A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth, which falls out about an hour after hatching. This egg tooth never grows back. Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two. If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready, they will return if possible. When a hatchling decides to leave the shell, it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron.
The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible, and several days later, it will have been absorbed into the turtle's belly. The sac must be absorbed, and does not fall off. The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim. The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days.
Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk – enough to allow air into the turtle's body – results in death. This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason.
An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo's growth by the sac smothering the embryo. If it manages to reach term, the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac, which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death. The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely, and while the opening has not completely healed yet.
The sex of red-eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos' development. Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22–27 °C (72–81 °F), whereas females develop at warmer temperatures. Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos.
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines
Suborder : Cryptodira
Superfamily : Testudinoidea
Family : Emydidae
Genus :Trachemys
Species : T. scripta
Subspecies: T. s. elegans
Trinomial name Trachemys scripta elegans
(Wied-Neuwied, 1839)
Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus
marbled bent-toed gecko
marbled bent-toed gecko
Gekkonidae (the common geckos) is the largest family of geckos, containing over 950 described species in 64 genera.
The Gekkonidae contain many of the most widespread gecko species, including house geckos (Hemidactylus), the tokay gecko (Gekko), day geckos (Phelsuma), the
mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus), and dtellas (Gehyra). Gekkonid geckos occur globally and are particularly diverse in tropical areas.
Species within the Gekkonidae inhabit every warm region. Furthermore, many genera are capable of widespread geographical habitation, and can be considered invasive in some areas.
The family Gekkonidae is a member of the infraorder Gekkota, which seems to have first emerged during the Jurassic period (201-145 million years ago).
Cyrtodactylus is a diverse genus of Asian geckos, commonly known as bent-toed geckos, bow-fingered geckos, and forest geckos.
The genus has 354 described species as of 2023, which makes it the largest of all gecko genera.
Instead of possessing dilated digits like other geckos, members of Cyrtodactylus have slender, curved toes to which the common names for the genus can be attributed.
The phylogenetic relationships with this genus and the genus Geckoella has not been resolved to date.
Based on morphology, Bauer (2002) suggested that it was a subgenus of Cyrtodactylus but a phylogenetic study by Feng et al. (2007), though with inadequate sampling of taxa, restored it to generic status once again. All species of Geckoella have been placed here pending a more definitive study.
Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus (In Thai: ตุ๊กกายลายสี่ขีด) Known as Taylor's bow-fingered gecko, four-striped forest gecko and marbled bent-toed gecko, is a species of gecko found in Thailand, Malaysia,
Singapore and Indonesia.
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Squamata
Family : Gekkonidae
Genus : Cyrtodactylus
Species : C. quadrivirgatus
Binomial name Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus
Edward Harrison Taylor, 1962
The Gekkonidae contain many of the most widespread gecko species, including house geckos (Hemidactylus), the tokay gecko (Gekko), day geckos (Phelsuma), the
mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus), and dtellas (Gehyra). Gekkonid geckos occur globally and are particularly diverse in tropical areas.
Species within the Gekkonidae inhabit every warm region. Furthermore, many genera are capable of widespread geographical habitation, and can be considered invasive in some areas.
The family Gekkonidae is a member of the infraorder Gekkota, which seems to have first emerged during the Jurassic period (201-145 million years ago).
Cyrtodactylus is a diverse genus of Asian geckos, commonly known as bent-toed geckos, bow-fingered geckos, and forest geckos.
The genus has 354 described species as of 2023, which makes it the largest of all gecko genera.
Instead of possessing dilated digits like other geckos, members of Cyrtodactylus have slender, curved toes to which the common names for the genus can be attributed.
The phylogenetic relationships with this genus and the genus Geckoella has not been resolved to date.
Based on morphology, Bauer (2002) suggested that it was a subgenus of Cyrtodactylus but a phylogenetic study by Feng et al. (2007), though with inadequate sampling of taxa, restored it to generic status once again. All species of Geckoella have been placed here pending a more definitive study.
Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus (In Thai: ตุ๊กกายลายสี่ขีด) Known as Taylor's bow-fingered gecko, four-striped forest gecko and marbled bent-toed gecko, is a species of gecko found in Thailand, Malaysia,
Singapore and Indonesia.
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Reptilia
Order : Squamata
Family : Gekkonidae
Genus : Cyrtodactylus
Species : C. quadrivirgatus
Binomial name Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus
Edward Harrison Taylor, 1962
The giant Asian pond turtle
(Heosemys grandis)
In Thai: เต่าหวาย, dtao waay
(Heosemys grandis)
In Thai: เต่าหวาย, dtao waay
Heosemys is a genus of freshwater turtles ("terrapins" in British English) in the family Geoemydidae (formerly called Bataguridae).
The genus Heosemys was split out of the related genus Geoemyda by McDowell in 1964.
Four species are placed under Heosemys :
• Arakan forest turtle (Boulenger, 1903),
Heosemys depressa
• Giant Asian pond turtle (Gray, 1860),
Heosemys grandis
• Spiny turtle (Gray, 1831),
Heosemys spinosa
• Yellow-headed temple turtle (Anderson, 1875), Heosemys annandalii
The giant Asian pond turtle (Heosemys grandis,
in Thai: เต่าหวาย, dtao waay) also known as The Giant Leaf Terrapin inhabits rivers, streams, marshes, and rice paddies from estuarine lowlands to moderate altitudes (up to about 400 metres (1,300 ft) throughout Cambodia and Vietnam and in parts of Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. It is an introduced species to Singapore.
Slight variations in coloration can be seen among the species. The carapace of the giant Asian pond turtle has a brown to black coloration with a distinct ridge along the center while the plastron is yellow in color. The head is gray to brown in color.
Capable of living in water or on land the giant Asian pond turtle can be located along bodies of water such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, marshes and canals.
The giant Asian pond turtle is omnivorous and finds food in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Their diets consist of worms, larvae, insects, snails, deceased animals, aquatic and terrestrial plants.
Similarly to other species of turtles, the giant Asian pond turtle has developed adaptations and different techniques for capturing prey in both types of environments.
H. grandis is sexual reproduction, it reaches sexual maturity at the age of 15. Female lays 2-3 eggs. The young hatch after 70 days. They are able to breed until the age of 55 and live up to 70.
The main area of concern is the illegal capture and export of these turtles for use as food and (less commonly) as pets in parts of Asia.
Additionally, their habitat is threatened by land conversion for agriculture.
It prefers shallow water, and spends much time soaking in the margins. When out of the water it generally remains hidden amongst vegetation, but on occasions may be spotted basking in the sun on open ground.
The species is mainly herbivorous, but will also feed opportunistically on freshwater invertebrates and fishes.
Cota, M., Horne, B.D. & Shepherd, C. 2021 (Heosemys grandis) Giant Asian Pond Turtle is in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus: Heosemys
Species: H. grandis
Binomial name Heosemys grandis
(Gray, 1860)
Synonyms :
• Geoemyda grandis Gray, 1860
• Clemmys grandis Strauch, 1862
• Heosemys grandis Stejneger, 1902
The genus Heosemys was split out of the related genus Geoemyda by McDowell in 1964.
Four species are placed under Heosemys :
• Arakan forest turtle (Boulenger, 1903),
Heosemys depressa
• Giant Asian pond turtle (Gray, 1860),
Heosemys grandis
• Spiny turtle (Gray, 1831),
Heosemys spinosa
• Yellow-headed temple turtle (Anderson, 1875), Heosemys annandalii
The giant Asian pond turtle (Heosemys grandis,
in Thai: เต่าหวาย, dtao waay) also known as The Giant Leaf Terrapin inhabits rivers, streams, marshes, and rice paddies from estuarine lowlands to moderate altitudes (up to about 400 metres (1,300 ft) throughout Cambodia and Vietnam and in parts of Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. It is an introduced species to Singapore.
Slight variations in coloration can be seen among the species. The carapace of the giant Asian pond turtle has a brown to black coloration with a distinct ridge along the center while the plastron is yellow in color. The head is gray to brown in color.
Capable of living in water or on land the giant Asian pond turtle can be located along bodies of water such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, marshes and canals.
The giant Asian pond turtle is omnivorous and finds food in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Their diets consist of worms, larvae, insects, snails, deceased animals, aquatic and terrestrial plants.
Similarly to other species of turtles, the giant Asian pond turtle has developed adaptations and different techniques for capturing prey in both types of environments.
H. grandis is sexual reproduction, it reaches sexual maturity at the age of 15. Female lays 2-3 eggs. The young hatch after 70 days. They are able to breed until the age of 55 and live up to 70.
The main area of concern is the illegal capture and export of these turtles for use as food and (less commonly) as pets in parts of Asia.
Additionally, their habitat is threatened by land conversion for agriculture.
It prefers shallow water, and spends much time soaking in the margins. When out of the water it generally remains hidden amongst vegetation, but on occasions may be spotted basking in the sun on open ground.
The species is mainly herbivorous, but will also feed opportunistically on freshwater invertebrates and fishes.
Cota, M., Horne, B.D. & Shepherd, C. 2021 (Heosemys grandis) Giant Asian Pond Turtle is in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus: Heosemys
Species: H. grandis
Binomial name Heosemys grandis
(Gray, 1860)
Synonyms :
• Geoemyda grandis Gray, 1860
• Clemmys grandis Strauch, 1862
• Heosemys grandis Stejneger, 1902
Cuora amboinensis kamaroma
(Malayan box turtle or domed Malayan box turtle)
(Malayan box turtle or domed Malayan box turtle)
Asian box turtles are turtles of the genus Cuora in the family Geoemydidae. Genus Cuora is distributed from China to Indonesia and the Philippines, throughout mainland Southeast Asia, and into northern India and Bhutan.
Cuora species are characterized by a low- (e.g. Cuora pani) to high- (e.g. Cuora picturata) domed shell, which usually has three keels on the carapace. They are reddish, yellowish, brown, grey, and/or black in color.
Some species have bright yellow, black, orange, or white stripes down the length of their keels. Their body color is highly variable, but usually very intense. Most species show stripes of variable color down either side of their heads, which usually meet at the nose.
Asian box turtles are terrestrial, semiaquatic, or mainly aquatic, most spending much of their time on the edge of shallow swamps, streams, or ponds that are dense with vegetation. Most are omnivorous, but
carnivores do occur. Asian box turtles are the most heavily trafficked turtles in the world.
The Amboina box turtle or Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) is a species of Asian box turtle.
These turtles have blackish-brown to olive-brown colored shells that are not as ornate as many other box turtles. All have a blackish-olive head with three yellow stripes on the side. The male can be identified by his slightly concave plastron. There is no specific rule as to what the underbellies may look like, for either sex.
In addition, scutes and growth rings are a poor indicator of age (similar to tree rings, but less accurate) the only reliable method of estimating a turtle’s age is to evaluate the overall texture and wear of the shell, as growth rings form irregularly.
There are four subspecies that are primarily differentiated by differences in the color and shape of the carapace:
• Cuora amboinensis amboinensis (Wallacean box turtle) – eastern Indonesian islands: Ambon Island, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Buru, Seram, and East Timor, and other small islands in the region.
Has a quite flat shell with flared marginal scutes. The plastron has bigger black spots, and it possesses a bigger head; well adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. For individuals suspected to be of this subspecies: Ratio of carapace length / height: 3.08. Average ratio dimensions of plastron spots: 1.21 (almost circular)
• Cuora amboinensis couro (West Indonesian box turtle) (Schweigger, 1812) – south Indonesian islands: Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sumbawa.
Moderately domed carapace, some individuals possess flared marginal scutes. The plastron shows black markings on every plastral scute. Darker in coloration, more oval black spots on the plastron.
• Cuora amboinensis kamaroma (Malayan box turtle or domed Malayan box turtle) Rummler & Fritz, 1991
Mainland Indochina (South and. Central Vietnam, southern Laos and Cambodia), Thailand (Phang Nga Province, etc.), Singapore and mainland Malaysia and Borneo.
High domed carapace and smaller, more elongated plastron with less black spots than the other subspecies. It has a smaller and shorter tail compared to the other subspecies and does not have any flares in the marginal scutes. Average ratio of carapace length / height: 2.82. Average ratio dimensions of plastron spots: 2.14 (small and elongated)
• Cuora amboinensis lineata (Burmese box turtle) McCord & Philippen, 1998 – Myanmar.
Resembles Cuora amboinensis kamaroma, but in the carapace there is a bright colored mid-dorsal line, and sometimes a bright colored lateral line. The plastral scutes possess large black spots similar to Cuora amboinensis couro.
C. a. kamaroma has hybridized in captivity with the Vietnamese pond turtle a species nearly extinct in the wild – and with males of the Chinese pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii). Other hybrids are known, like C. amboinensis × Cuora trifasciata.
They are omnivorous, with younger turtles tending towards more meat consumption and older turtles eating a more herbivorous diet.
Although Cuora amboinensis is classified as endangered by the IUCN, they are able to thrive in some areas of the world which they can be found in the storm drains of Brunei. These are seriously polluted, and yet seem to be extremely popular habitat for these turtles and other animals that can withstand eutrophication. In some places, this species is hunted for use in folk medicine.
Cuora amboinensis can be quite difficult to breed in captivity, compared with other box turtles. These turtles have a mating ritual very similar to that of other box turtles. No courtship occurs, the male simply climbs upon the female. He then snaps at her head, so that she closes the front half of her shell, opening the back.
Cuora amboinensis is one of the most heavily traded species in Southeast Asia, captured from the wild in huge numbers to supply demand for pets, meat and for use in traditional medicines. Indonesia is the greatest source of this species and while there are quotas in place, these quotas are regularly exceeded.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus:Cuora
Species: C. amboinensis
Binomial nameb Cuora amboinensis
Daudin, 1802
Cuora species are characterized by a low- (e.g. Cuora pani) to high- (e.g. Cuora picturata) domed shell, which usually has three keels on the carapace. They are reddish, yellowish, brown, grey, and/or black in color.
Some species have bright yellow, black, orange, or white stripes down the length of their keels. Their body color is highly variable, but usually very intense. Most species show stripes of variable color down either side of their heads, which usually meet at the nose.
Asian box turtles are terrestrial, semiaquatic, or mainly aquatic, most spending much of their time on the edge of shallow swamps, streams, or ponds that are dense with vegetation. Most are omnivorous, but
carnivores do occur. Asian box turtles are the most heavily trafficked turtles in the world.
The Amboina box turtle or Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) is a species of Asian box turtle.
These turtles have blackish-brown to olive-brown colored shells that are not as ornate as many other box turtles. All have a blackish-olive head with three yellow stripes on the side. The male can be identified by his slightly concave plastron. There is no specific rule as to what the underbellies may look like, for either sex.
In addition, scutes and growth rings are a poor indicator of age (similar to tree rings, but less accurate) the only reliable method of estimating a turtle’s age is to evaluate the overall texture and wear of the shell, as growth rings form irregularly.
There are four subspecies that are primarily differentiated by differences in the color and shape of the carapace:
• Cuora amboinensis amboinensis (Wallacean box turtle) – eastern Indonesian islands: Ambon Island, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Buru, Seram, and East Timor, and other small islands in the region.
Has a quite flat shell with flared marginal scutes. The plastron has bigger black spots, and it possesses a bigger head; well adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. For individuals suspected to be of this subspecies: Ratio of carapace length / height: 3.08. Average ratio dimensions of plastron spots: 1.21 (almost circular)
• Cuora amboinensis couro (West Indonesian box turtle) (Schweigger, 1812) – south Indonesian islands: Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sumbawa.
Moderately domed carapace, some individuals possess flared marginal scutes. The plastron shows black markings on every plastral scute. Darker in coloration, more oval black spots on the plastron.
• Cuora amboinensis kamaroma (Malayan box turtle or domed Malayan box turtle) Rummler & Fritz, 1991
Mainland Indochina (South and. Central Vietnam, southern Laos and Cambodia), Thailand (Phang Nga Province, etc.), Singapore and mainland Malaysia and Borneo.
High domed carapace and smaller, more elongated plastron with less black spots than the other subspecies. It has a smaller and shorter tail compared to the other subspecies and does not have any flares in the marginal scutes. Average ratio of carapace length / height: 2.82. Average ratio dimensions of plastron spots: 2.14 (small and elongated)
• Cuora amboinensis lineata (Burmese box turtle) McCord & Philippen, 1998 – Myanmar.
Resembles Cuora amboinensis kamaroma, but in the carapace there is a bright colored mid-dorsal line, and sometimes a bright colored lateral line. The plastral scutes possess large black spots similar to Cuora amboinensis couro.
C. a. kamaroma has hybridized in captivity with the Vietnamese pond turtle a species nearly extinct in the wild – and with males of the Chinese pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii). Other hybrids are known, like C. amboinensis × Cuora trifasciata.
They are omnivorous, with younger turtles tending towards more meat consumption and older turtles eating a more herbivorous diet.
Although Cuora amboinensis is classified as endangered by the IUCN, they are able to thrive in some areas of the world which they can be found in the storm drains of Brunei. These are seriously polluted, and yet seem to be extremely popular habitat for these turtles and other animals that can withstand eutrophication. In some places, this species is hunted for use in folk medicine.
Cuora amboinensis can be quite difficult to breed in captivity, compared with other box turtles. These turtles have a mating ritual very similar to that of other box turtles. No courtship occurs, the male simply climbs upon the female. He then snaps at her head, so that she closes the front half of her shell, opening the back.
Cuora amboinensis is one of the most heavily traded species in Southeast Asia, captured from the wild in huge numbers to supply demand for pets, meat and for use in traditional medicines. Indonesia is the greatest source of this species and while there are quotas in place, these quotas are regularly exceeded.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus:Cuora
Species: C. amboinensis
Binomial nameb Cuora amboinensis
Daudin, 1802
Gekko monarchus
spotted house gecko
spotted house gecko
Gekko is a genus of Southeast Asian geckos,
commonly known as true geckos or calling geckos, in the family Gekkonidae.
Although species such as Gekko gecko (tokay gecko)
are very widespread and common, some species in the same genus have a very small range and are considered rare or endangered.
Gekko monarchus, also called the spotted house gecko, is a species of gecko found in the Malay Peninsula (including southern Thailand and Singapore), some smaller Malaysian islands, Borneo (Brunei, East Malaysia and Kalimantan), the Philippines, many Indonesian islands including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and New Guinea (Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea).
This lizard has the typical body build of the genus Gekko - it appears flat and has a rough skin with small bumps on its back.
Their tails regenerate once dropped, as with most gecko species. The regenerated tail will never look the same as the original (it has a different texture and slightly odd color)
Similar to common house geckos and dtellas, males make quiet clicking sounds when courting a female; both sexes are capable of chirping and "barking". When startled or alarmed, the gecko waves its tail quickly and may breathe heavily, making a sound not unlike hissing.
They have a W spot on the backs of their heads, typical for this species.
Monarch geckos are strictly insectivorous, feeding on various types of insects (roaches, crickets, flies, spiders, even wasps).
G.monarchus is easily identified by the pairs of black spots along its ventral surface, and by the black 'W' at the back of the neck. This nocturnal species occurs in lowland forest, both primary and secondary, as well as rock crevices, old buildings and road culverts.
Its eggs are laid in pairs in the leaf litter or rotting logs, or else adhered to walls or other man-made structures.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Gekko
Species: G. monarchus
Binomial name Gekko monarchus
(Schlegel, 1836)
commonly known as true geckos or calling geckos, in the family Gekkonidae.
Although species such as Gekko gecko (tokay gecko)
are very widespread and common, some species in the same genus have a very small range and are considered rare or endangered.
Gekko monarchus, also called the spotted house gecko, is a species of gecko found in the Malay Peninsula (including southern Thailand and Singapore), some smaller Malaysian islands, Borneo (Brunei, East Malaysia and Kalimantan), the Philippines, many Indonesian islands including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and New Guinea (Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea).
This lizard has the typical body build of the genus Gekko - it appears flat and has a rough skin with small bumps on its back.
Their tails regenerate once dropped, as with most gecko species. The regenerated tail will never look the same as the original (it has a different texture and slightly odd color)
Similar to common house geckos and dtellas, males make quiet clicking sounds when courting a female; both sexes are capable of chirping and "barking". When startled or alarmed, the gecko waves its tail quickly and may breathe heavily, making a sound not unlike hissing.
They have a W spot on the backs of their heads, typical for this species.
Monarch geckos are strictly insectivorous, feeding on various types of insects (roaches, crickets, flies, spiders, even wasps).
G.monarchus is easily identified by the pairs of black spots along its ventral surface, and by the black 'W' at the back of the neck. This nocturnal species occurs in lowland forest, both primary and secondary, as well as rock crevices, old buildings and road culverts.
Its eggs are laid in pairs in the leaf litter or rotting logs, or else adhered to walls or other man-made structures.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Gekko
Species: G. monarchus
Binomial name Gekko monarchus
(Schlegel, 1836)
Lepidodactylus lugubris
common smooth scaled gecko
common smooth scaled gecko
Lepidodactylus is a large genus of geckos, commonly known as scaly-toed geckos and closely related to house geckos or dtellas.
Species in the genus Lepidodactylus are found from Southeast Asia to Indo-Australia and Oceania.
Lepidodactylus lugubris, known as the mourning gecko or common smooth-scaled gecko, is a species of lizard, a gecko of the family Gekkonidae.
Lepidodactylus lugubris measure 8.5-10 cm in length including tail (4-4.4 cm snout-to-vent).
L. lugubris is cryptically coloured, typically light to dark tan with dark spots down the length of its back and a brown strip from the ear to the tip of the nose. Its dorsal surface and its tail is patterned with complex, wavy bars.
Juveniles are more boldly patterned with pale barring and mottling on the dorsal surface, and regular barring on top of the tail.
This species is capable of changing color, and so the same individual may appear light or dark at different times during the day.
Species of L. lugubris is nearly all female, and reproduces via parthenogenesis. While males occasionally occur, they are very rare and often sterile.
Females lay 1-2 eggs at a time, eggs are laid either in the soil, or adhered to the foliage of mangrove and or glue them to surfaces in protected locations. Clutches are laid every 4-6 weeks.
L. lugubris are omnivorous. In the wild, they eat a varied diet of insects, fruit, and pollen, occasionally it is kept as pets due to their simple care requirements and social nature.
The species is well distributed throughout much of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Lombok, Sulawesi, Halmahera, Ambon, the Philippines and New Guinea.
Because they are parthenogenic, these geckos reproduce well in captivity and thus most individuals kept as pets are captive-bred.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Lepidodactylus
Species: L. lugubris
Binomial name Lepidodactylus lugubris
(Duméril & Bibron, 1836)
Species in the genus Lepidodactylus are found from Southeast Asia to Indo-Australia and Oceania.
Lepidodactylus lugubris, known as the mourning gecko or common smooth-scaled gecko, is a species of lizard, a gecko of the family Gekkonidae.
Lepidodactylus lugubris measure 8.5-10 cm in length including tail (4-4.4 cm snout-to-vent).
L. lugubris is cryptically coloured, typically light to dark tan with dark spots down the length of its back and a brown strip from the ear to the tip of the nose. Its dorsal surface and its tail is patterned with complex, wavy bars.
Juveniles are more boldly patterned with pale barring and mottling on the dorsal surface, and regular barring on top of the tail.
This species is capable of changing color, and so the same individual may appear light or dark at different times during the day.
Species of L. lugubris is nearly all female, and reproduces via parthenogenesis. While males occasionally occur, they are very rare and often sterile.
Females lay 1-2 eggs at a time, eggs are laid either in the soil, or adhered to the foliage of mangrove and or glue them to surfaces in protected locations. Clutches are laid every 4-6 weeks.
L. lugubris are omnivorous. In the wild, they eat a varied diet of insects, fruit, and pollen, occasionally it is kept as pets due to their simple care requirements and social nature.
The species is well distributed throughout much of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Lombok, Sulawesi, Halmahera, Ambon, the Philippines and New Guinea.
Because they are parthenogenic, these geckos reproduce well in captivity and thus most individuals kept as pets are captive-bred.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Lepidodactylus
Species: L. lugubris
Binomial name Lepidodactylus lugubris
(Duméril & Bibron, 1836)
Siebenrockiella crassicollis
Black marsh turtle
Black marsh turtle
Siebenrockiella is a small genus of black marsh turtles. It used to be monotypic but now has two species with the addition of the Philippine forest turtle (moved from the genus Heosemys).
The genus was originally erected in 1869 by John Edward Gray under the name Bellia, commemorating Thomas Bell, but this name is a junior homonym of Bellia Milne-Edwards, 1848, a crustacean genus.
The replacement name, Siebenrockiella, was published in 1929 by Wassili Adolfovitch Lindholm, and commemorates Friedrich Siebenrock.
Siebenrockiella crassicollis (commonly known as black marsh turtle, smiling terrapin, and Siamese temple turtle, among others) is a freshwater turtle endemic to Southeast Asia. It is one of two species classified under the genus Siebenrockiella in the family Geoemydidae.
Black marsh turtles are small to medium-sized turtles that are almost completely black except for white to yellow markings on the head. They are largely aquatic and prefer slow-moving or still bodies of water with heavy vegetation. Black marsh turtles are also commonly kept as pets and as sacred animals in Southeast Asian Buddhist.
They are classified as endangered by the IUCN, being one of the several Southeast Asian turtle species heavily exploited for the international wildlife trade, particularly for food and traditional medicine in the Chinese markets.
Formerly under the genus Emys, black marsh turtles are now classified under Siebenrockiella.
They were first described by the British zoologist John Edward Gray from three specimens from the collections of Thomas Bell.
Black marsh turtles used to be monotypic within the genus Siebenrockiella until Diesmos et al. (2005) showed based on genetic studies and morphology, that the recently rediscovered and critically endangered Philippine forest turtles, until that time known as Heosemys leytensis, were actually very closely related. Philippine forest turtles were subsequently reassigned to Siebenrockiella under the subgenus Panyaenemys.
They are classified under the subfamily Geoemydinae under the family Geoemydidae. Black marsh turtles are cryptodires, having the ability to pull their heads straight back into the shells; instead of folding their necks sideways along the body like in pleurodiran
turtles.
The specific epithet "crassicollis" comes from Latin crassus ("thick") and collum ("neck"). The generic name was coined in honor of the Austrian zoologist Friedrich Siebenrock.
Siebenrockiella crassicollis are known by a variety of vernacular names among hobbyists, such as black terrapin, black mud turtle, Malaysian black mud turtle, fat-headed turtle, thick-necked turtle, and Borneo black leaf turtle. They are also known as kura-kura pipi-putih in Indonesian.
Adult black marsh turtles are usually small to medium-sized, averaging at around 17 cm (6.7 in) in length and rarely exceeding 20 cm (7.9 in).
Some individuals, however, are known to grow to twice this size. The ovoid carapace (the dorsal shell) is widest just behind the middle portion, with a strongly serrated posterior margin. A prominent central ridge (known as keels) also runs through the middle of the carapace. Two lateral keels are present as well, though they are not always visible. The carapace is almost entirely black or dark brown with black radiating patterns.
The plastron (the ventral shell) is not hinged and has a shallow U-shaped notch in the pair of anal scutes.
The bridge (the parts connecting the abdominal and pectoral scutes of the plastron to the carapace) is approximately the same length as the rear part of the plastron (consisting of the femoral and anal scutes). Both the bridge and the plastron can be entirely black, dark brown, or yellowish with splotches or patterns of darker colors.
The forelimbs are covered with large transverse scales. Both the forelimbs and the hind limbs are webbed, reflecting their largely aquatic habits. The necks of black marsh turtles are characteristically thick, forming a collar around the head when it is retracted into the shell.
All of the limbs, the tail, and the neck are dark gray to black. The head is broad with a short upwardly pointed snout. It is mostly black on top with cream to yellow markings around the eyes and at the throat. It also has a pair of pale white to yellow spots just behind the tympanum, usually hidden behind the folds of the neck.
The powerful jaws are pale yellow to pale brown in color and curves upwards, earning it the charming name of smiling terrapin.
Black marsh turtles are sexually dimorphic. Males have concave plastra in contrast to the flat plastron of females.
The markings around the eyes and throat, present in all juveniles, disappear among males upon reaching adulthood while they are retained in females. The tails are also longer and thicker for males than for females.
Black marsh turtles have a diploid karyotype of 52 chromosomes. They are also notable for being the first turtle shown to exhibit an XX/XY system of chromosomal sex determination, specifically with macrochromosomes.
Very rare in turtles where the gender of developing embryos are usually determined by environmental temperatures.
Black marsh turtles can be found in southern Vietnam, Cambodia, southern Myanmar (Tenasserim), central and peninsular Thailand, eastern and western Malaysia, Singapore, and the Indonesian islands of Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra.
Black marsh turtles live in slow-moving or stagnant warm waters with abundant vegetation usually marshes, swamps, and ponds. As their common name implies, black marsh turtles are primarily aquatic and prefer to stay buried in soft mud when not feeding.
Black marsh turtles are predominantly carnivorous and prefer to feed underwater. They prey on insects, worms, molluscs, amphibians, crustaceans, and small fish, though they will occasionally scavenge rotting plants, fruits, or carcasses of larger animals that fall into the water. Juveniles are typically more
carnivorous than adults.
Black marsh turtles are shy creatures. Mostly aquatic and nocturnal, they will sometimes come out to land at night to forage or mate, and occasionally during the day to bask. Majority of the time they prefer to stay underwater, partially buried in mud in shallow water or swimming near the bottom in deeper still waters.
When threatened, black marsh turtles excrete a foul-smelling secretion from their cloaca to ward off would-be predators. Their powerful jaws are also capable of inflicting wounds if handled roughly.
Black marsh turtles reach sexual maturity at five years. Nesting season occurs in the summer, between April and the end of June.
In courtship, males will bob their heads up and down while chasing a female. It may bite the legs of the females several times before mating.
Females will lay three or four clutches. Each clutch consisting usually of one or rarely two relatively large eggs, around 5 by 3 cm (2.0 by 1.2 in) and weighing 30 g (0.066 lb). The eggs are incubated for 68 to 84 days before hatching. The hatchlings are relatively large, measuring around 5 cm (2.0 in).
The maximum known lifespan of black marsh turtles observed in captivity is about 60 years.
Black marsh turtles are culturally important to Buddhism. In Thailand, large numbers of black marsh turtles, along with the yellow-headed temple turtles (Heosemys annandalii) are released into temple and castle ponds and cared for by Buddhist monks.
They are treated as sacred by the public, being believed to contain the souls of people who died while trying to rescue other people from drowning. One of their commons names, Siamese temple turtle, originated from this practice.
In a study in 2010, black marsh turtles were among the turtles found to contain high levels of mercury in their tissues. Their consumption as food is discouraged as they have the potential to cause mercury poisoning.
Black marsh turtles are now being captive bred both for conservation and for the pet trade. In 2004, a black marsh turtle hatched at the Bristol Zoo Gardens. It was the first of its species to successfully hatch in a European zoo. Captive bred black marsh turtles are preferable as pets, being healthier and more acclimated to handling than individuals captured from the wild and illegally exported.
Black marsh turtles are classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
They are also listed on CITES Appendix II. Aside from signatories to CITES, Black marsh turtles are also specifically protected in Thailand under the Wild Animals Reservation Protection Act (WARPA).
General laws against the trade and/or capture of freshwater turtles or wildlife that also extend to black marsh turtles are also in place in Myanmar, Singapore, and Vietnam.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus: Siebenrockiella
Species: S. crassicollis
Binomial name Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Gray, 1831)
The genus was originally erected in 1869 by John Edward Gray under the name Bellia, commemorating Thomas Bell, but this name is a junior homonym of Bellia Milne-Edwards, 1848, a crustacean genus.
The replacement name, Siebenrockiella, was published in 1929 by Wassili Adolfovitch Lindholm, and commemorates Friedrich Siebenrock.
Siebenrockiella crassicollis (commonly known as black marsh turtle, smiling terrapin, and Siamese temple turtle, among others) is a freshwater turtle endemic to Southeast Asia. It is one of two species classified under the genus Siebenrockiella in the family Geoemydidae.
Black marsh turtles are small to medium-sized turtles that are almost completely black except for white to yellow markings on the head. They are largely aquatic and prefer slow-moving or still bodies of water with heavy vegetation. Black marsh turtles are also commonly kept as pets and as sacred animals in Southeast Asian Buddhist.
They are classified as endangered by the IUCN, being one of the several Southeast Asian turtle species heavily exploited for the international wildlife trade, particularly for food and traditional medicine in the Chinese markets.
Formerly under the genus Emys, black marsh turtles are now classified under Siebenrockiella.
They were first described by the British zoologist John Edward Gray from three specimens from the collections of Thomas Bell.
Black marsh turtles used to be monotypic within the genus Siebenrockiella until Diesmos et al. (2005) showed based on genetic studies and morphology, that the recently rediscovered and critically endangered Philippine forest turtles, until that time known as Heosemys leytensis, were actually very closely related. Philippine forest turtles were subsequently reassigned to Siebenrockiella under the subgenus Panyaenemys.
They are classified under the subfamily Geoemydinae under the family Geoemydidae. Black marsh turtles are cryptodires, having the ability to pull their heads straight back into the shells; instead of folding their necks sideways along the body like in pleurodiran
turtles.
The specific epithet "crassicollis" comes from Latin crassus ("thick") and collum ("neck"). The generic name was coined in honor of the Austrian zoologist Friedrich Siebenrock.
Siebenrockiella crassicollis are known by a variety of vernacular names among hobbyists, such as black terrapin, black mud turtle, Malaysian black mud turtle, fat-headed turtle, thick-necked turtle, and Borneo black leaf turtle. They are also known as kura-kura pipi-putih in Indonesian.
Adult black marsh turtles are usually small to medium-sized, averaging at around 17 cm (6.7 in) in length and rarely exceeding 20 cm (7.9 in).
Some individuals, however, are known to grow to twice this size. The ovoid carapace (the dorsal shell) is widest just behind the middle portion, with a strongly serrated posterior margin. A prominent central ridge (known as keels) also runs through the middle of the carapace. Two lateral keels are present as well, though they are not always visible. The carapace is almost entirely black or dark brown with black radiating patterns.
The plastron (the ventral shell) is not hinged and has a shallow U-shaped notch in the pair of anal scutes.
The bridge (the parts connecting the abdominal and pectoral scutes of the plastron to the carapace) is approximately the same length as the rear part of the plastron (consisting of the femoral and anal scutes). Both the bridge and the plastron can be entirely black, dark brown, or yellowish with splotches or patterns of darker colors.
The forelimbs are covered with large transverse scales. Both the forelimbs and the hind limbs are webbed, reflecting their largely aquatic habits. The necks of black marsh turtles are characteristically thick, forming a collar around the head when it is retracted into the shell.
All of the limbs, the tail, and the neck are dark gray to black. The head is broad with a short upwardly pointed snout. It is mostly black on top with cream to yellow markings around the eyes and at the throat. It also has a pair of pale white to yellow spots just behind the tympanum, usually hidden behind the folds of the neck.
The powerful jaws are pale yellow to pale brown in color and curves upwards, earning it the charming name of smiling terrapin.
Black marsh turtles are sexually dimorphic. Males have concave plastra in contrast to the flat plastron of females.
The markings around the eyes and throat, present in all juveniles, disappear among males upon reaching adulthood while they are retained in females. The tails are also longer and thicker for males than for females.
Black marsh turtles have a diploid karyotype of 52 chromosomes. They are also notable for being the first turtle shown to exhibit an XX/XY system of chromosomal sex determination, specifically with macrochromosomes.
Very rare in turtles where the gender of developing embryos are usually determined by environmental temperatures.
Black marsh turtles can be found in southern Vietnam, Cambodia, southern Myanmar (Tenasserim), central and peninsular Thailand, eastern and western Malaysia, Singapore, and the Indonesian islands of Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra.
Black marsh turtles live in slow-moving or stagnant warm waters with abundant vegetation usually marshes, swamps, and ponds. As their common name implies, black marsh turtles are primarily aquatic and prefer to stay buried in soft mud when not feeding.
Black marsh turtles are predominantly carnivorous and prefer to feed underwater. They prey on insects, worms, molluscs, amphibians, crustaceans, and small fish, though they will occasionally scavenge rotting plants, fruits, or carcasses of larger animals that fall into the water. Juveniles are typically more
carnivorous than adults.
Black marsh turtles are shy creatures. Mostly aquatic and nocturnal, they will sometimes come out to land at night to forage or mate, and occasionally during the day to bask. Majority of the time they prefer to stay underwater, partially buried in mud in shallow water or swimming near the bottom in deeper still waters.
When threatened, black marsh turtles excrete a foul-smelling secretion from their cloaca to ward off would-be predators. Their powerful jaws are also capable of inflicting wounds if handled roughly.
Black marsh turtles reach sexual maturity at five years. Nesting season occurs in the summer, between April and the end of June.
In courtship, males will bob their heads up and down while chasing a female. It may bite the legs of the females several times before mating.
Females will lay three or four clutches. Each clutch consisting usually of one or rarely two relatively large eggs, around 5 by 3 cm (2.0 by 1.2 in) and weighing 30 g (0.066 lb). The eggs are incubated for 68 to 84 days before hatching. The hatchlings are relatively large, measuring around 5 cm (2.0 in).
The maximum known lifespan of black marsh turtles observed in captivity is about 60 years.
Black marsh turtles are culturally important to Buddhism. In Thailand, large numbers of black marsh turtles, along with the yellow-headed temple turtles (Heosemys annandalii) are released into temple and castle ponds and cared for by Buddhist monks.
They are treated as sacred by the public, being believed to contain the souls of people who died while trying to rescue other people from drowning. One of their commons names, Siamese temple turtle, originated from this practice.
In a study in 2010, black marsh turtles were among the turtles found to contain high levels of mercury in their tissues. Their consumption as food is discouraged as they have the potential to cause mercury poisoning.
Black marsh turtles are now being captive bred both for conservation and for the pet trade. In 2004, a black marsh turtle hatched at the Bristol Zoo Gardens. It was the first of its species to successfully hatch in a European zoo. Captive bred black marsh turtles are preferable as pets, being healthier and more acclimated to handling than individuals captured from the wild and illegally exported.
Black marsh turtles are classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
They are also listed on CITES Appendix II. Aside from signatories to CITES, Black marsh turtles are also specifically protected in Thailand under the Wild Animals Reservation Protection Act (WARPA).
General laws against the trade and/or capture of freshwater turtles or wildlife that also extend to black marsh turtles are also in place in Myanmar, Singapore, and Vietnam.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus: Siebenrockiella
Species: S. crassicollis
Binomial name Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Gray, 1831)
Pelodiscus sinensis
Chinese softshell turtles
Chinese softshell turtles
The Trionychidae are a taxonomic family of a number of turtle genera, commonly known as softshell turtles.
The family was erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826.
Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to living in highly brackish areas.
Members of this family occur in Africa, Asia, and North America, with extinct species known from Australia. Most species have traditionally been included in the genus Trionyx, but the vast majority have since been moved to other genera.
Among these are the North American Apalone softshells that were placed in Trionyx until 1987.
They are called "softshell" because their carapaces lack horny scutes
(scales), though the spiny softshell, Apalone spinifera, does have some scale-like projections, hence its name.
The carapace is leathery and pliable, particularly at the sides. The central part of the carapace has a layer of solid bone beneath it, as in other turtles, but this is absent at the outer edges. Some species also have dermal bones in the plastron, but these are not attached to the bones of the shell.
The light and flexible shell of these turtles allows them to move more easily in open water or in muddy lake bottoms. Having a soft shell also allows them to move much faster on land than most turtles.
Their feet are webbed and three-clawed, hence the family name "Trionychidae," which means "three-clawed". The carapace color of each type of softshell turtle tends to match the sand or mud color of its geographical region, assisting in their "lie in wait" feeding methodology.
These turtles have many
characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle. Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food.
They have elongated, soft, snorkel-like nostrils. Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.
Females can grow up to several feet in carapace diameter, while males stay much smaller; this is their main form of sexual dimorphism.
The largest softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii is found in southeastern Asia.
Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, Amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals.
Softshells are able to "breathe" underwater with rhythmic movements of their mouth cavity, which contains numerous processes copiously supplied with blood, acting similarly to gill filaments in fish. This enables them to stay underwater for prolonged periods.
The Chinese softshell turtle has been shown to excrete urea while "breathing" underwater; this is an efficient solution when the animal does not have access to fresh water, e.g., in brackish-water environments.
According to Ditmars (1910): "The mandibles of many species form the outer border of powerful crushing processes the alveolar surfaces of the jaws", which aids the ingestion of tough prey such as molluscs. These jaws make large turtles dangerous, as they are capable of amputating a person's finger, or possibly their hand.
Softshell turtles are eaten as a delicacy in most parts of their range, particularly in East Asia.
The most commonly consumed worldwide softshell species is the Chinese softshell Pelodiscus sinensis.
The Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is a species of softshell turtle that is native to China (Inner Mongolia to Guangxi, including Hong Kong) and Taiwan, with records of escapees some of which have
established introduced populationsin a wide range of other Asian countries, as well as Spain, Brazil and Hawaii.
Populations native to Northeast China, Russia, Korea and Japan were formerly included in this species, but are now regarded as separate as the northern Chinese softshell turtle (P. maackii).
Furthermore, localized populations in Guangxi and Hunan (where the Chinese softshell turtle also is present), as well as Vietnam, are recognized as the lesser Chinese softshell turtle (P. parviformis) and Hunan softshell turtle (P. axenaria).
The Chinese softshell turtle is a vulnerable species, threatened by disease, habitat loss, and collection for food such as turtle soup.
Chinese softshell turtles were the first turtle species to undergo a large-scale outbreak of bacterial softshell disease, resulting in slower growth and increased fatality. This lead not only to a decline in P. sinensis, but caused severe economic losses to the turtle culture industry.
Additionally, millions are now farmed, especially in China, to support the food industry, and it is the world's most economically important turtle.
Females of the Chinese softshell turtle can reach up to 33 cm (13 in) in carapace length, while the smaller males reach 27 cm (11 in), but however have longer tails than the females. Maturity is reached at a carapace length of 18–19 cm (7–7.5 in). It has webbed feet for swimming.
The carapace of these turtles is olive in color and may have dark blotches. The plastron is orange-red, and may also have large dark blotches.
The limbs and head are olive dorsally with the forelimbs lighter and the hind-limbs orange red ventrally. There are dark flecks on the head and dark lines that radiate from the eyes.
The throat is mottled and there may be small, dark bars on the lips. A pair of dark blotches is found in front of the tail as well as a black band on the posterior side of each thigh.
The Chinese softshell turtle is native to Taiwan and China. It is difficult to determine its exact native range of the Chinese softshell turtle due to the long tradition of use as a food and herbal medicinal, and subsequent spread by migrating people.
Outside their native China, escapees have been recorded in a wide range of countries and some of these have becomes established as introduced populations.
Chinese softshell turtles live in fresh and brackish water. In China these turtles are found in rivers, lakes, ponds, canals and creeks with slow currents, and in Hawaii they can be found in marshes and drainage ditches.
With their long snout and tubelike nostrils, these turtles can "snorkel" in shallow water. When resting, they lie at the bottom, buried in sand or mud, lifting their head to breathe or snatch at prey. Their basking habit is not well developed.
Chinese softshell turtles often submerge their heads in water. This is because they carry a gene which produces a protein that allows them to secrete urea from their mouths.
This adaptation helps them survive in brackish water by making it possible for them to excrete urea without drinking too much salty water. Rather than eliminating urea by urinating through their cloaca as most turtles do, which involves significant water loss, they simply rinse their mouths in the water.
When provoked, certain populations of these turtles are capable of excreting a foul smelling fluid from pores on the anterior edge of their shells.
These turtles reach sexual maturity sometime between 4 and 6 years of age. They mate at the surface or under water. A male will hold the female's carapace with its forelimbs and may bite at her head, neck, and limbs. Females may retain sperm for almost a year after copulation.
The females lay 8–30 eggs in a clutch and may lay from 2 to 5 clutches each year. The eggs are laid in a nest that is about 76–102 mm (3–4 in) across at the entrance. Eggs are spherical and average about 20 mm (0.79 in) in diameter. After an incubation period of about 60 days, which may be longer or shorter depending upon temperature, the eggs hatch.
Average hatchling carapace length is about 25 mm (1 in) and width is also about 25 mm (1 in). Sex of the hatchlings is not determined by incubation temperature.
Chinese softshell turtle are vulnerable to multiple bacterial diseases including Bacillus cereus Spp. and many other.
Wild populations are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
In contrast, the mass farming and release of P. sinensis has been known to lead to hybridization several other unique Pelodiscus lineages, some of which may be their own distinct species, which in turn threatens their gene pool.
These turtles can be injured if they are dropped or hit, and are susceptible to shell fungus.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Trionychia
Family: Trionychidae
Fitzinger, 1826
Genus: Pelodiscus
Species: P. sinensis
Binomial name Pelodiscus sinensis
(Wiegmann, 1835)
The family was erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826.
Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to living in highly brackish areas.
Members of this family occur in Africa, Asia, and North America, with extinct species known from Australia. Most species have traditionally been included in the genus Trionyx, but the vast majority have since been moved to other genera.
Among these are the North American Apalone softshells that were placed in Trionyx until 1987.
They are called "softshell" because their carapaces lack horny scutes
(scales), though the spiny softshell, Apalone spinifera, does have some scale-like projections, hence its name.
The carapace is leathery and pliable, particularly at the sides. The central part of the carapace has a layer of solid bone beneath it, as in other turtles, but this is absent at the outer edges. Some species also have dermal bones in the plastron, but these are not attached to the bones of the shell.
The light and flexible shell of these turtles allows them to move more easily in open water or in muddy lake bottoms. Having a soft shell also allows them to move much faster on land than most turtles.
Their feet are webbed and three-clawed, hence the family name "Trionychidae," which means "three-clawed". The carapace color of each type of softshell turtle tends to match the sand or mud color of its geographical region, assisting in their "lie in wait" feeding methodology.
These turtles have many
characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle. Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food.
They have elongated, soft, snorkel-like nostrils. Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.
Females can grow up to several feet in carapace diameter, while males stay much smaller; this is their main form of sexual dimorphism.
The largest softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii is found in southeastern Asia.
Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, Amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals.
Softshells are able to "breathe" underwater with rhythmic movements of their mouth cavity, which contains numerous processes copiously supplied with blood, acting similarly to gill filaments in fish. This enables them to stay underwater for prolonged periods.
The Chinese softshell turtle has been shown to excrete urea while "breathing" underwater; this is an efficient solution when the animal does not have access to fresh water, e.g., in brackish-water environments.
According to Ditmars (1910): "The mandibles of many species form the outer border of powerful crushing processes the alveolar surfaces of the jaws", which aids the ingestion of tough prey such as molluscs. These jaws make large turtles dangerous, as they are capable of amputating a person's finger, or possibly their hand.
Softshell turtles are eaten as a delicacy in most parts of their range, particularly in East Asia.
The most commonly consumed worldwide softshell species is the Chinese softshell Pelodiscus sinensis.
The Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is a species of softshell turtle that is native to China (Inner Mongolia to Guangxi, including Hong Kong) and Taiwan, with records of escapees some of which have
established introduced populationsin a wide range of other Asian countries, as well as Spain, Brazil and Hawaii.
Populations native to Northeast China, Russia, Korea and Japan were formerly included in this species, but are now regarded as separate as the northern Chinese softshell turtle (P. maackii).
Furthermore, localized populations in Guangxi and Hunan (where the Chinese softshell turtle also is present), as well as Vietnam, are recognized as the lesser Chinese softshell turtle (P. parviformis) and Hunan softshell turtle (P. axenaria).
The Chinese softshell turtle is a vulnerable species, threatened by disease, habitat loss, and collection for food such as turtle soup.
Chinese softshell turtles were the first turtle species to undergo a large-scale outbreak of bacterial softshell disease, resulting in slower growth and increased fatality. This lead not only to a decline in P. sinensis, but caused severe economic losses to the turtle culture industry.
Additionally, millions are now farmed, especially in China, to support the food industry, and it is the world's most economically important turtle.
Females of the Chinese softshell turtle can reach up to 33 cm (13 in) in carapace length, while the smaller males reach 27 cm (11 in), but however have longer tails than the females. Maturity is reached at a carapace length of 18–19 cm (7–7.5 in). It has webbed feet for swimming.
The carapace of these turtles is olive in color and may have dark blotches. The plastron is orange-red, and may also have large dark blotches.
The limbs and head are olive dorsally with the forelimbs lighter and the hind-limbs orange red ventrally. There are dark flecks on the head and dark lines that radiate from the eyes.
The throat is mottled and there may be small, dark bars on the lips. A pair of dark blotches is found in front of the tail as well as a black band on the posterior side of each thigh.
The Chinese softshell turtle is native to Taiwan and China. It is difficult to determine its exact native range of the Chinese softshell turtle due to the long tradition of use as a food and herbal medicinal, and subsequent spread by migrating people.
Outside their native China, escapees have been recorded in a wide range of countries and some of these have becomes established as introduced populations.
Chinese softshell turtles live in fresh and brackish water. In China these turtles are found in rivers, lakes, ponds, canals and creeks with slow currents, and in Hawaii they can be found in marshes and drainage ditches.
With their long snout and tubelike nostrils, these turtles can "snorkel" in shallow water. When resting, they lie at the bottom, buried in sand or mud, lifting their head to breathe or snatch at prey. Their basking habit is not well developed.
Chinese softshell turtles often submerge their heads in water. This is because they carry a gene which produces a protein that allows them to secrete urea from their mouths.
This adaptation helps them survive in brackish water by making it possible for them to excrete urea without drinking too much salty water. Rather than eliminating urea by urinating through their cloaca as most turtles do, which involves significant water loss, they simply rinse their mouths in the water.
When provoked, certain populations of these turtles are capable of excreting a foul smelling fluid from pores on the anterior edge of their shells.
These turtles reach sexual maturity sometime between 4 and 6 years of age. They mate at the surface or under water. A male will hold the female's carapace with its forelimbs and may bite at her head, neck, and limbs. Females may retain sperm for almost a year after copulation.
The females lay 8–30 eggs in a clutch and may lay from 2 to 5 clutches each year. The eggs are laid in a nest that is about 76–102 mm (3–4 in) across at the entrance. Eggs are spherical and average about 20 mm (0.79 in) in diameter. After an incubation period of about 60 days, which may be longer or shorter depending upon temperature, the eggs hatch.
Average hatchling carapace length is about 25 mm (1 in) and width is also about 25 mm (1 in). Sex of the hatchlings is not determined by incubation temperature.
Chinese softshell turtle are vulnerable to multiple bacterial diseases including Bacillus cereus Spp. and many other.
Wild populations are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
In contrast, the mass farming and release of P. sinensis has been known to lead to hybridization several other unique Pelodiscus lineages, some of which may be their own distinct species, which in turn threatens their gene pool.
These turtles can be injured if they are dropped or hit, and are susceptible to shell fungus.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Trionychia
Family: Trionychidae
Fitzinger, 1826
Genus: Pelodiscus
Species: P. sinensis
Binomial name Pelodiscus sinensis
(Wiegmann, 1835)
Cnemaspis peninsularis
peninsular rock gecko
peninsular rock gecko
Gekkonidae (the common geckos) is the largest family of geckos, containing over 950 described species in 64 genera. Members of the Gekkonidae comprise many of the most widespread gecko species, including house geckos (Hemidactylus), tokay geckos (Gekko), day geckos (Phelsuma), mourning geckos (Lepidodactylus) and dtellas (Gehyra). Gekkonid geckos occur globally and are particularly species-rich in tropical areas.
They evolved probably in the Lower Cretaceous and some 100 million years ago they were already well adapted for a scansorial lifestyle. Some members of the Gekkonidae family have evolved adhesive toe pads that allow them to adhere to and climb vertical surfaces.
Many genera of the Gekkonidae family are capable of widespread geographical habitation. However, such species prefer arid regions of warmer temperature and higher precipitation.
Cnemaspis is a genus of diurnal (day) geckos found in Africa and Asia. With over 100 species, it is one of the most diverse genera of geckos. Molecular phylogenies suggest that the three regional groupings may form distinct clades which are not each other's closest relatives.
Species in this genus have slender, clawed digits which are cylindrical or depressed at the base (rarely dilated); the distal phalanges are compressed, forming an angle with the basal portion of the digits, the lower surface of which has a row of plates. Their bodies are more or less depressed, granular or tubercular above. Tail not compressed. Pupil circular; eyelid distinct all round the eye. Males with or without pre-anal or femoral pores.
Cnemaspis peninsularis, also known as the peninsular rock gecko, is a species of gecko from southern Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Cnemaspis
Species: C. peninsularis
Binomial name Cnemaspis peninsularis
Grismer et al., 2014
They evolved probably in the Lower Cretaceous and some 100 million years ago they were already well adapted for a scansorial lifestyle. Some members of the Gekkonidae family have evolved adhesive toe pads that allow them to adhere to and climb vertical surfaces.
Many genera of the Gekkonidae family are capable of widespread geographical habitation. However, such species prefer arid regions of warmer temperature and higher precipitation.
Cnemaspis is a genus of diurnal (day) geckos found in Africa and Asia. With over 100 species, it is one of the most diverse genera of geckos. Molecular phylogenies suggest that the three regional groupings may form distinct clades which are not each other's closest relatives.
Species in this genus have slender, clawed digits which are cylindrical or depressed at the base (rarely dilated); the distal phalanges are compressed, forming an angle with the basal portion of the digits, the lower surface of which has a row of plates. Their bodies are more or less depressed, granular or tubercular above. Tail not compressed. Pupil circular; eyelid distinct all round the eye. Males with or without pre-anal or femoral pores.
Cnemaspis peninsularis, also known as the peninsular rock gecko, is a species of gecko from southern Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Genus: Cnemaspis
Species: C. peninsularis
Binomial name Cnemaspis peninsularis
Grismer et al., 2014
The saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus)
(Crocodylus porosus)
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 1996. It was hunted for its skin throughout its range up to the 1970s, and is threatened by illegal killing and habitat loss. It is regarded as dangerous for people who share the same environment. The saltwater crocodile is the largest living reptile and crocodilian known to science.
Males grow to a length of up to 6 m (20 ft), rarely exceeding 6.3 m (21 ft) or a weight of 1,000–1,300 kg (2,200–2,900 lb)
Females are much smaller and rarely surpass 3 m (10 ft). It is also known as the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile or informally as saltie.
The saltwater crocodile is a large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator. It ambushes most of its prey and then drowns or swallows it whole. It is capable of prevailing over almost any animal that enters its territory, including other apex predators such as sharks, varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species, invertebrates such as crustaceans, various reptiles, birds and mammals, including humans.
The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However, it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile (C. palustris); its length is twice its width at the base. A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent. In addition, an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields, and small, triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large, transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield. The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading, as well as in the few areas in the field where sub-adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles. It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians.
The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator.
Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.
The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases (see square-cube law). This explains why individuals at 6 m (20 ft) weigh more than twice that of individuals at 5 m (16 ft).
In crocodiles, linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point.
Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world. However, they start life fairly small. Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 28 cm (11 in) long and weigh an average of 71 g (2 1⁄2 oz). These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles, despite that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles.
The size of an adult male saltwater crocodile, from young adults to older individuals, typically ranges 3.5 to 6 m (11 ft 6 in to 19 ft 8 in) in length and weighs 200 to 1,000 kg (440 to 2,200 lb).
On average, adult males range 4.3 to 4.9 m (14 ft 1 in to 16 ft 1 in) in length and weigh 408 to 522 kg (899 to 1,151 lb). However average size largely depends on the location, habitat, and human interactions, thus changes from one study to another, when figures of each study are viewed separately.
The adult females typically measure from 2.7 to 3.1 m (8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 2 in) in total length and weigh 76 to 103 kg (168 to 227 lb).
Large mature females reach 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) and weigh up to 120 to 200 kg (260 to 440 lb). The largest female on record measured about 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) in total length. Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species, at least the Nile crocodile.
The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism, by far, of any extant crocodilian, as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length. The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex-specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat. Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest size dimorphism of other species, the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at 3.8–4 m (12 ft 6 in–13 ft 1 in). The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps and river deltas
Because of its tendency to swim long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range. Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season.
The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait which alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions.
Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances and mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.
Generally very lethargic, a trait which helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day, preferring to hunt at night.
Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water.
Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising agility and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey.
They can also swim at 24 to 29 km/h (15 to 18 mph) in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually travel at 3 to 5 km/h (2 to 3 mph).
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: C. porosus
Binomial name Crocodylus porosus
Schneider, 1801
Males grow to a length of up to 6 m (20 ft), rarely exceeding 6.3 m (21 ft) or a weight of 1,000–1,300 kg (2,200–2,900 lb)
Females are much smaller and rarely surpass 3 m (10 ft). It is also known as the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile or informally as saltie.
The saltwater crocodile is a large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator. It ambushes most of its prey and then drowns or swallows it whole. It is capable of prevailing over almost any animal that enters its territory, including other apex predators such as sharks, varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species, invertebrates such as crustaceans, various reptiles, birds and mammals, including humans.
The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However, it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile (C. palustris); its length is twice its width at the base. A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent. In addition, an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields, and small, triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large, transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield. The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading, as well as in the few areas in the field where sub-adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles. It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians.
The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator.
Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.
The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases (see square-cube law). This explains why individuals at 6 m (20 ft) weigh more than twice that of individuals at 5 m (16 ft).
In crocodiles, linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point.
Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world. However, they start life fairly small. Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 28 cm (11 in) long and weigh an average of 71 g (2 1⁄2 oz). These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles, despite that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles.
The size of an adult male saltwater crocodile, from young adults to older individuals, typically ranges 3.5 to 6 m (11 ft 6 in to 19 ft 8 in) in length and weighs 200 to 1,000 kg (440 to 2,200 lb).
On average, adult males range 4.3 to 4.9 m (14 ft 1 in to 16 ft 1 in) in length and weigh 408 to 522 kg (899 to 1,151 lb). However average size largely depends on the location, habitat, and human interactions, thus changes from one study to another, when figures of each study are viewed separately.
The adult females typically measure from 2.7 to 3.1 m (8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 2 in) in total length and weigh 76 to 103 kg (168 to 227 lb).
Large mature females reach 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) and weigh up to 120 to 200 kg (260 to 440 lb). The largest female on record measured about 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) in total length. Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species, at least the Nile crocodile.
The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism, by far, of any extant crocodilian, as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length. The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex-specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat. Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest size dimorphism of other species, the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at 3.8–4 m (12 ft 6 in–13 ft 1 in). The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps and river deltas
Because of its tendency to swim long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range. Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season.
The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait which alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions.
Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances and mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.
Generally very lethargic, a trait which helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day, preferring to hunt at night.
Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water.
Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising agility and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey.
They can also swim at 24 to 29 km/h (15 to 18 mph) in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually travel at 3 to 5 km/h (2 to 3 mph).
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: C. porosus
Binomial name Crocodylus porosus
Schneider, 1801
Draco sumatranus
The common gliding lizard
The common gliding lizard
Draco sumatranus, the common gliding lizard, It was formerly considered a sub-species of Draco volans.
It is a species of agamid lizard endemic to Southeast Asia. It has elongated ribs and skin flaps on the sides of its body. When opened, these skin flaps allow it to glide between tree trunks. They are found in Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Palawan.
They are relatively common in forests and in urban settings such as parks and gardens. It is primarily a tree dweller, except that the females come down to the forest floor to lay eggs.
The body length is of about 9 cm (3.5 in), with a slightly longer tail. The body is of a dark grey brown colouration with stripes and patterns to help it camouflage against the tree trunks.
The males have a yellow triangular flap of skin under the chin, the gular fold, which is used to communicate with other lizards, mostly for mating.
Females have a much smaller and blue flap. They feed on small insects. Usually ants and termites.
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Draco
Species: D.sumatranus
Binomial name Draco sumatranus
Schlegel, 1844
It is a species of agamid lizard endemic to Southeast Asia. It has elongated ribs and skin flaps on the sides of its body. When opened, these skin flaps allow it to glide between tree trunks. They are found in Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Palawan.
They are relatively common in forests and in urban settings such as parks and gardens. It is primarily a tree dweller, except that the females come down to the forest floor to lay eggs.
The body length is of about 9 cm (3.5 in), with a slightly longer tail. The body is of a dark grey brown colouration with stripes and patterns to help it camouflage against the tree trunks.
The males have a yellow triangular flap of skin under the chin, the gular fold, which is used to communicate with other lizards, mostly for mating.
Females have a much smaller and blue flap. They feed on small insects. Usually ants and termites.
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Draco
Species: D.sumatranus
Binomial name Draco sumatranus
Schlegel, 1844
Green Iguana
Shot at Sungei Tengah June 2018
The green iguana (Iguana iguana), also known as the American iguana, is a large, arboreal, mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana. Usually, this animal is simply called the iguana.
The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area; it is native from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico and the Caribbean islands, and have been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and are very common throughout the island, where they are colloquially known as gallina de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the trees") and considered an invasive species; in the United States, feral populations also exist in South Florida (including the Florida Keys), Hawaii, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
A herbivore, it has adapted significantly with regard to locomotion and osmoregulation as a result of its diet. It grows to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in length from head to tail, although a few specimens have grown more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) with bodyweights upward of 20 pounds (9.1 kg).
Commonly found in captivity as a pet due to its calm disposition and bright colors, it can be very demanding to care for properly. Space requirements and the need for special lighting and heat can prove challenging to the hobbyist.
The native range of the green iguana extends from southern Mexico to central Brazil, Dominican Republic, Paraguay, and Bolivia and the Caribbean; specifically Grenada, Aruba, Curaçao, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Útila.
They have been introduced to Grand Cayman, Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Furthermore, green iguanas colonised the island of Anguilla in 1995 after being washed ashore following a hurricane. Though the species is not native to Martinique, a small wild colony of released or escaped green iguanas endures at historic Fort Saint Louis. Green iguanas are diurnal, arboreal, and are often found near water.
Agile climbers, iguana can fall up to 50 feet (15 m) and land unhurt, iguanas use their hind leg claws to clasp leaves and branches to break a fall.
During cold, wet weather, green iguanas prefer to stay on the ground for greater warmth. When swimming, an iguana remains submerged, letting its four legs hang limply against its side. They propel through the water with powerful tail strokes.
In South and Central America, where the green iguana is native, it is an endangered species in some countries because people have been hunting and eating this gallino de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the trees") for a long time.
Despite their name, green iguanas can come in different colours and types. In southern countries of their range, such as Peru, green iguanas appear bluish in colour with bold blue markings.
On islands such as Bonaire, Curaçao, Aruba, and Grenada, a green iguana's colour may range from green to lavender, black, and even reddish brown.
Green iguanas from the western region of Costa Rica are red, and animals of the northern ranges, such as Mexico, appear orange.
Juvenile green iguanas from El Salvador are often bright blue as babies, but they lose this color as they get older.
Adult iguanas found on most of St. Lucia, mainly on the northeastern coast, Louvette and Grand Anse, have many differences from other green iguana populations. They are light green with predominant black stripes. Instead of the typical orange dewlap, the iguanas of St. Lucia have a black dewlap.
When compared to the common green iguana, females lay about half the amount of eggs, 25 instead of 50.
Scales to the back of their head, near the jawbone, are smaller. Their iris is white or cream, whereas other green iguanas have yellow irises.
Green iguanas possess a row of spines along their backs and along their tails, which helps to protect them from predators. Their whip-like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes and like many other lizards, when grabbed by the tail, the iguana can allow it to break, so it can escape and eventually regenerate a new one. In addition, iguanas have a well-developed dewlap, which helps regulate their body temperature.
This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays.
Green iguanas have excellent vision, enabling them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. As green iguanas have only a few rod cells, they have poor vision in low-light conditions. At the same time, they have cells called “double cone cells” that give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. This ability is highly useful when basking so the animal can ensure that it absorbs enough sunlight in the forms of UVA and UVB to produce vitamin D.
Green iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye (also called the third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland), in contrast to most other lizards that have lost this primitive feature. This "eye" has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images, but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. This helps the iguana detect predators stalking it from above.
Green iguanas have very sharp teeth that are capable of shredding leaves and even human skin. These teeth are shaped like a leaf, broad and flat, with serrations on the edge. The similarity of these teeth to those of one of the first dinosaurs discovered led to the dinosaur being named Iguanodon, meaning "iguana tooth", and the incorrect assumption that it had resembled a gigantic iguana. The teeth are situated on the inner sides of the jawbones, which is why they are hard to see in smaller specimens.
Primarily herbivorous, green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram, more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs.
As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids, like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland. As a result, green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride.
Green iguanas from Guatemala and southern Mexico predominantly have small horns on their snouts between their eyes and their nostrils, whereas others do not.
Naturalists once classified these iguanas as a separate subspecies (Iguana iguana rhinolopha); however, this classification has been found to be invalid based on mitochondrial DNA and iguanas with similar nose projections appearing randomly in other populations and interbreeding freely with those that do not share this trait.
The green iguana is a large lizard and is probably the largest species in the iguana family, though a few in the genus Cyclura may match or exceed it in weight.
Adults typically grow to 1.2 to 1.7 m (3.9 to 5.6 ft) in length from head to tail.
As in all iguanas, the tail comprises much of this length, and the snout-to-vent length of most green iguanas is 30 to 42 cm (12 to 17 in).
An average adult male will weigh around 4 kg (8.8 lb) while the smaller adult female will typically weigh 1.2 to 3 kg (2.6 to 6.6 lb).
A few large males can reach or exceed 6 to 8 kg
(13 to 18 lb) in weight and 2 m (6.6 ft) long.
Some specimens have even reportedly been measured at a body weight of greater than 20 lb (9.1 kg).
The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area; it is native from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico and the Caribbean islands, and have been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and are very common throughout the island, where they are colloquially known as gallina de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the trees") and considered an invasive species; in the United States, feral populations also exist in South Florida (including the Florida Keys), Hawaii, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
A herbivore, it has adapted significantly with regard to locomotion and osmoregulation as a result of its diet. It grows to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in length from head to tail, although a few specimens have grown more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) with bodyweights upward of 20 pounds (9.1 kg).
Commonly found in captivity as a pet due to its calm disposition and bright colors, it can be very demanding to care for properly. Space requirements and the need for special lighting and heat can prove challenging to the hobbyist.
The native range of the green iguana extends from southern Mexico to central Brazil, Dominican Republic, Paraguay, and Bolivia and the Caribbean; specifically Grenada, Aruba, Curaçao, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Útila.
They have been introduced to Grand Cayman, Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Furthermore, green iguanas colonised the island of Anguilla in 1995 after being washed ashore following a hurricane. Though the species is not native to Martinique, a small wild colony of released or escaped green iguanas endures at historic Fort Saint Louis. Green iguanas are diurnal, arboreal, and are often found near water.
Agile climbers, iguana can fall up to 50 feet (15 m) and land unhurt, iguanas use their hind leg claws to clasp leaves and branches to break a fall.
During cold, wet weather, green iguanas prefer to stay on the ground for greater warmth. When swimming, an iguana remains submerged, letting its four legs hang limply against its side. They propel through the water with powerful tail strokes.
In South and Central America, where the green iguana is native, it is an endangered species in some countries because people have been hunting and eating this gallino de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the trees") for a long time.
Despite their name, green iguanas can come in different colours and types. In southern countries of their range, such as Peru, green iguanas appear bluish in colour with bold blue markings.
On islands such as Bonaire, Curaçao, Aruba, and Grenada, a green iguana's colour may range from green to lavender, black, and even reddish brown.
Green iguanas from the western region of Costa Rica are red, and animals of the northern ranges, such as Mexico, appear orange.
Juvenile green iguanas from El Salvador are often bright blue as babies, but they lose this color as they get older.
Adult iguanas found on most of St. Lucia, mainly on the northeastern coast, Louvette and Grand Anse, have many differences from other green iguana populations. They are light green with predominant black stripes. Instead of the typical orange dewlap, the iguanas of St. Lucia have a black dewlap.
When compared to the common green iguana, females lay about half the amount of eggs, 25 instead of 50.
Scales to the back of their head, near the jawbone, are smaller. Their iris is white or cream, whereas other green iguanas have yellow irises.
Green iguanas possess a row of spines along their backs and along their tails, which helps to protect them from predators. Their whip-like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes and like many other lizards, when grabbed by the tail, the iguana can allow it to break, so it can escape and eventually regenerate a new one. In addition, iguanas have a well-developed dewlap, which helps regulate their body temperature.
This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays.
Green iguanas have excellent vision, enabling them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. As green iguanas have only a few rod cells, they have poor vision in low-light conditions. At the same time, they have cells called “double cone cells” that give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. This ability is highly useful when basking so the animal can ensure that it absorbs enough sunlight in the forms of UVA and UVB to produce vitamin D.
Green iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye (also called the third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland), in contrast to most other lizards that have lost this primitive feature. This "eye" has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images, but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. This helps the iguana detect predators stalking it from above.
Green iguanas have very sharp teeth that are capable of shredding leaves and even human skin. These teeth are shaped like a leaf, broad and flat, with serrations on the edge. The similarity of these teeth to those of one of the first dinosaurs discovered led to the dinosaur being named Iguanodon, meaning "iguana tooth", and the incorrect assumption that it had resembled a gigantic iguana. The teeth are situated on the inner sides of the jawbones, which is why they are hard to see in smaller specimens.
Primarily herbivorous, green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram, more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs.
As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids, like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland. As a result, green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride.
Green iguanas from Guatemala and southern Mexico predominantly have small horns on their snouts between their eyes and their nostrils, whereas others do not.
Naturalists once classified these iguanas as a separate subspecies (Iguana iguana rhinolopha); however, this classification has been found to be invalid based on mitochondrial DNA and iguanas with similar nose projections appearing randomly in other populations and interbreeding freely with those that do not share this trait.
The green iguana is a large lizard and is probably the largest species in the iguana family, though a few in the genus Cyclura may match or exceed it in weight.
Adults typically grow to 1.2 to 1.7 m (3.9 to 5.6 ft) in length from head to tail.
As in all iguanas, the tail comprises much of this length, and the snout-to-vent length of most green iguanas is 30 to 42 cm (12 to 17 in).
An average adult male will weigh around 4 kg (8.8 lb) while the smaller adult female will typically weigh 1.2 to 3 kg (2.6 to 6.6 lb).
A few large males can reach or exceed 6 to 8 kg
(13 to 18 lb) in weight and 2 m (6.6 ft) long.
Some specimens have even reportedly been measured at a body weight of greater than 20 lb (9.1 kg).
Male green iguanas have highly developed femoral pores on the underside of their thighs which secrete a scent (females have femoral pores, but they are smaller in comparison to those of the males).
In addition, the dorsal spines that run along a green iguana's back are noticeably longer and thicker in males than they are in females, making the animals somewhat sexually dimorphic.
Male green iguanas tend to display more dominant behaviors, such as head bobbing and tail whipping. They also tend to develop a taller dorsal crest than females, as well as taller dorsal spines (or spikes).
Large, round, very pronounced jowls are generally a male characteristic. Jowls are located under the jaw and are protected by the subtympanic plate, which is a large, green, circular-shaped scale.
Green iguanas are oviparous, with females laying clutches of 20 to 71 eggs once per year during a synchronized nesting period.
The female green iguana gives no parental protection after egg laying, apart from defending the nesting burrow during excavation.
In Panama, the green iguana has been observed sharing nest sites with American crocodilesand in Honduras with spectacled caimans.
The hatchlings emerge from the nest after 10–15 weeks of incubation. Once hatched, the young iguanas look similar to the adults in color and shape, resembling adult females more so than males and lacking dorsal spines.
Juveniles stay in familial groups for the first year of their lives. Male green iguanas in these groups often use their own bodies to shield and protect females from predators and it appears to be the only species of reptile which does this.
When frightened by a predator, green iguanas will attempt to flee and, if near a body of water, dive into it and swim away. If cornered by a threat, the green iguana will extend and display the dewlap under its neck, stiffen and puff up its body, hiss, and bob its head at the aggressor. If the threat persists, the iguana can lash with its tail, bite and use its claws in defense. The wounded are more inclined to fight than uninjured prey.
Green iguanas use "head bobs" and dewlaps in a variety of ways in social interactions, such as greeting another iguana or to court a possible mate. The frequency and number of head bobs have particular meanings to other iguanas.
Green iguanas are hunted by predatory birds and their fear of these is exploited as a ploy to catch them in the wild. The sound of a hawk's whistle or scream makes the iguana boogie dance and it becomes easier to capture.
Green iguanas are primarily herbivores, with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip greens, mustard greens, dandelion greens, flowers, fruit, and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant.
In Panama, one of the green iguana's favorite foods is the wild plum (Spondias mombin).
Although they will consume a wide variety of foods if offered, green iguanas are naturally herbivorous and require a precise ratio of minerals (2 to 1 calcium to phosphorus) in their diet.
It is important for captive iguanas to have a variety of leafy greens along with fruits and vegetables such as turnip greens, collards, butternut squash, acorn squash, mango, and parsnip.
Juvenile iguanas often eat feces from adults in order to acquire the essential microflora to digest their low-quality and hard-to-process vegetarian-only diet.
There is some debate as to whether captive green iguanas should be fed animal protein. There is evidence of wild iguanas eating grasshoppers and tree snails, usually as a byproduct of eating plant material.
Wild adult green iguanas have been observed eating birds' eggs. Zoologists, such as Adam Britton, believe that such a diet containing protein is unhealthy for the animal's digestive system, resulting in severe long-term health damage, including kidney failure and leading to premature death.
On the other side of the argument is that green iguanas at the Miami Seaquarium in Key Biscayne, Florida, have been observed eating dead fish and individuals kept in captivity have been known to eat mice without any ill effects.
De Vosjoli writes that captive animals have been known to survive and thrive on eating nothing but whole rodent block, or monkey chow, and one instance of romaine lettucewith vitamin and calcium supplements. However, it is only recommended that captive iguanas not be fed lettuce or meat, and instead receive the vitamins and minerals they need via a purely herbivorous diet.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Iguanidae
Genus: Iguana
Species: I. iguana
Binomial name Iguana iguana
In addition, the dorsal spines that run along a green iguana's back are noticeably longer and thicker in males than they are in females, making the animals somewhat sexually dimorphic.
Male green iguanas tend to display more dominant behaviors, such as head bobbing and tail whipping. They also tend to develop a taller dorsal crest than females, as well as taller dorsal spines (or spikes).
Large, round, very pronounced jowls are generally a male characteristic. Jowls are located under the jaw and are protected by the subtympanic plate, which is a large, green, circular-shaped scale.
Green iguanas are oviparous, with females laying clutches of 20 to 71 eggs once per year during a synchronized nesting period.
The female green iguana gives no parental protection after egg laying, apart from defending the nesting burrow during excavation.
In Panama, the green iguana has been observed sharing nest sites with American crocodilesand in Honduras with spectacled caimans.
The hatchlings emerge from the nest after 10–15 weeks of incubation. Once hatched, the young iguanas look similar to the adults in color and shape, resembling adult females more so than males and lacking dorsal spines.
Juveniles stay in familial groups for the first year of their lives. Male green iguanas in these groups often use their own bodies to shield and protect females from predators and it appears to be the only species of reptile which does this.
When frightened by a predator, green iguanas will attempt to flee and, if near a body of water, dive into it and swim away. If cornered by a threat, the green iguana will extend and display the dewlap under its neck, stiffen and puff up its body, hiss, and bob its head at the aggressor. If the threat persists, the iguana can lash with its tail, bite and use its claws in defense. The wounded are more inclined to fight than uninjured prey.
Green iguanas use "head bobs" and dewlaps in a variety of ways in social interactions, such as greeting another iguana or to court a possible mate. The frequency and number of head bobs have particular meanings to other iguanas.
Green iguanas are hunted by predatory birds and their fear of these is exploited as a ploy to catch them in the wild. The sound of a hawk's whistle or scream makes the iguana boogie dance and it becomes easier to capture.
Green iguanas are primarily herbivores, with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip greens, mustard greens, dandelion greens, flowers, fruit, and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant.
In Panama, one of the green iguana's favorite foods is the wild plum (Spondias mombin).
Although they will consume a wide variety of foods if offered, green iguanas are naturally herbivorous and require a precise ratio of minerals (2 to 1 calcium to phosphorus) in their diet.
It is important for captive iguanas to have a variety of leafy greens along with fruits and vegetables such as turnip greens, collards, butternut squash, acorn squash, mango, and parsnip.
Juvenile iguanas often eat feces from adults in order to acquire the essential microflora to digest their low-quality and hard-to-process vegetarian-only diet.
There is some debate as to whether captive green iguanas should be fed animal protein. There is evidence of wild iguanas eating grasshoppers and tree snails, usually as a byproduct of eating plant material.
Wild adult green iguanas have been observed eating birds' eggs. Zoologists, such as Adam Britton, believe that such a diet containing protein is unhealthy for the animal's digestive system, resulting in severe long-term health damage, including kidney failure and leading to premature death.
On the other side of the argument is that green iguanas at the Miami Seaquarium in Key Biscayne, Florida, have been observed eating dead fish and individuals kept in captivity have been known to eat mice without any ill effects.
De Vosjoli writes that captive animals have been known to survive and thrive on eating nothing but whole rodent block, or monkey chow, and one instance of romaine lettucewith vitamin and calcium supplements. However, it is only recommended that captive iguanas not be fed lettuce or meat, and instead receive the vitamins and minerals they need via a purely herbivorous diet.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Iguanidae
Genus: Iguana
Species: I. iguana
Binomial name Iguana iguana
Bronchocela cristatella
Green Crested Lizard
Green Crested Lizard
Shot at Lower Peirce Reservoir
Bronchocela cristatella, also known as the green crested lizard, is a species of agamid lizard endemic to Southeast Asia.
B. cristatella is found in Malaysia (West Malaysia and Borneo), Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines (Palawan, Calamian Islands, Panay, Luzon), South Thailand, south Myanmar (Tenasserim Hills), and India (Nicobar Islands).
This species is a bright green lizard, sometimes possessing a blue tint on the head. It is able to change colour, turning darker brown when threatened. There is a dark ring around each eye, and a dark spot at the back of the head.
The males have a crest on the neck. It has a very long and thin tail (75% of total length). The body length is of 13 cm (5.1 in), and the total length (body + tail) is of 57 cm (22 in).
From C.A.L. Günther (1864) The Reptiles of British India.
Scales of the sides small, there being about forty in one of the transverse scries; ventral scales much larger, in fourteen longitudinal rows. A short scries of three or four larger scales forms a continuation of the superciliary margin; no other large scale on the temple. Nuchal crest low, formed by triangular spines; it is not continued on the back, where the vertebral scales arc scarcely prominent.
The fourth hind toe is one-eighth longer than the third. Uniform grass-green. This species is very common in the Malayan countries and in numerous islands of the East Indian Archipelago—Sumatra, Java, Amboyna, Celebes, Borneo, Booroo, Philippines, &c. It moves and leaps with great quickness among the branches of trees. Cantor saw the colours of these lizards change suddenly to grey, brownish or blackish, sometimes with orange spots or with indistinct black network; large, isolated, round black spots appeared on the head or back or round the tympanum. It attains to a length of 20 inches, the tail measuring 16 inches.
B. cristatella is found in forests as well as parks and rural areas.
Conservation status
In Singapore the range of B. cristatella is declining, as it is in competition with the introduced species Calotes versicolor (changeable lizard).
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Bronchocela
Species: B. cristatella
Binomial name Bronchocela cristatella
B. cristatella is found in Malaysia (West Malaysia and Borneo), Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines (Palawan, Calamian Islands, Panay, Luzon), South Thailand, south Myanmar (Tenasserim Hills), and India (Nicobar Islands).
This species is a bright green lizard, sometimes possessing a blue tint on the head. It is able to change colour, turning darker brown when threatened. There is a dark ring around each eye, and a dark spot at the back of the head.
The males have a crest on the neck. It has a very long and thin tail (75% of total length). The body length is of 13 cm (5.1 in), and the total length (body + tail) is of 57 cm (22 in).
From C.A.L. Günther (1864) The Reptiles of British India.
Scales of the sides small, there being about forty in one of the transverse scries; ventral scales much larger, in fourteen longitudinal rows. A short scries of three or four larger scales forms a continuation of the superciliary margin; no other large scale on the temple. Nuchal crest low, formed by triangular spines; it is not continued on the back, where the vertebral scales arc scarcely prominent.
The fourth hind toe is one-eighth longer than the third. Uniform grass-green. This species is very common in the Malayan countries and in numerous islands of the East Indian Archipelago—Sumatra, Java, Amboyna, Celebes, Borneo, Booroo, Philippines, &c. It moves and leaps with great quickness among the branches of trees. Cantor saw the colours of these lizards change suddenly to grey, brownish or blackish, sometimes with orange spots or with indistinct black network; large, isolated, round black spots appeared on the head or back or round the tympanum. It attains to a length of 20 inches, the tail measuring 16 inches.
B. cristatella is found in forests as well as parks and rural areas.
Conservation status
In Singapore the range of B. cristatella is declining, as it is in competition with the introduced species Calotes versicolor (changeable lizard).
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Bronchocela
Species: B. cristatella
Binomial name Bronchocela cristatella
Calotes versicolour
Oriental Garden Lizard
Oriental Garden Lizard
The oriental garden lizard, eastern garden lizard, bloodsucker or changeable lizard (Calotes versicolor) is an agamid lizard found widely distributed in indo-Malaya. It has also been introduced in many other parts of the world.
The lizard has a spiny back. It is an insectivore and the male gets a bright red throat in the breeding season.
The coloration is very variable, sometimes uniform brownish or greyish-olive or yellowish. Generally broad brown bands across the back, interrupted by a yellowish lateral band. Black streaks radiate from the eye, and some of them are continued over the throat, running obliquely backwards, belly frequently with greyish longitudinal stripes, one along the median line being the most distinct; young and half-grown specimens have a dark, black-edged band across the inter-orbital region.
The ground-colour is generally a light brownish olive, but the lizard can change it to bright red, to black, and to a mixture of both. This change is sometimes confined to the head, at other times diffused over the whole body and tail. Breeding-season, which falls in the months of May and June.
The female lays from five to sixteen soft oval eggs, about 5/8 of an inch long, in hollows of trees, or in holes in the soil which they have burrowed, afterward covering them up. The young appear in about eight or nine weeks.
In a hot sunny day a solitary Bloodsucker may be seen on a twig or on a wall, basking in the sun, with mouth wide open. After a shower of rain numbers of them are seen to come down on the ground and pick up the larva and small insects which fall from the trees during the showers.
During the breeding season, the male's head and shoulders turns bright orange to crimson and his throat black. Males also turn red-headed after a successful battle with rivals. Both males and females have a crest from the head to nearly the tail, hence their other common name "Crested Tree Lizard".
Changeable Lizards are related to iguanas (which are found only in the New World). Unlike other lizards, they do not drop their tails (autotomy), and their tails can be very long, stiff and pointy. Like other reptiles, they shed their skins. Like chameleons, Changeable Lizards can move each of their eyes in different directions.
The lizards were introduced to Singapore from Malaysia and Thailand in the 1980s. In Singapore, they are a threat to the native Green-Crested Lizard. The Changeable Lizard is relatively common and found in a wide range of habitats. They appear to adapt well to humans and are thus not endangered. They are commonly found among the undergrowth in open habitats including highly urban areas.
Changeable Lizards eat mainly insects such as crickets, grasshoppers, ants and small vertebrates, including rodents and other lizards. Although they have teeth, these are designed for gripping prey and not tearing it up. So prey is swallowed whole, after it is stunned by shaking it about. Sometimes, young inexperienced Changeable Lizards may choke on prey which are too large. Occasionally changeable lizards also consume vegetable matter.
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Calotes
Species: C. versicolor
Binomial name Calotes versicolor
The lizard has a spiny back. It is an insectivore and the male gets a bright red throat in the breeding season.
The coloration is very variable, sometimes uniform brownish or greyish-olive or yellowish. Generally broad brown bands across the back, interrupted by a yellowish lateral band. Black streaks radiate from the eye, and some of them are continued over the throat, running obliquely backwards, belly frequently with greyish longitudinal stripes, one along the median line being the most distinct; young and half-grown specimens have a dark, black-edged band across the inter-orbital region.
The ground-colour is generally a light brownish olive, but the lizard can change it to bright red, to black, and to a mixture of both. This change is sometimes confined to the head, at other times diffused over the whole body and tail. Breeding-season, which falls in the months of May and June.
The female lays from five to sixteen soft oval eggs, about 5/8 of an inch long, in hollows of trees, or in holes in the soil which they have burrowed, afterward covering them up. The young appear in about eight or nine weeks.
In a hot sunny day a solitary Bloodsucker may be seen on a twig or on a wall, basking in the sun, with mouth wide open. After a shower of rain numbers of them are seen to come down on the ground and pick up the larva and small insects which fall from the trees during the showers.
During the breeding season, the male's head and shoulders turns bright orange to crimson and his throat black. Males also turn red-headed after a successful battle with rivals. Both males and females have a crest from the head to nearly the tail, hence their other common name "Crested Tree Lizard".
Changeable Lizards are related to iguanas (which are found only in the New World). Unlike other lizards, they do not drop their tails (autotomy), and their tails can be very long, stiff and pointy. Like other reptiles, they shed their skins. Like chameleons, Changeable Lizards can move each of their eyes in different directions.
The lizards were introduced to Singapore from Malaysia and Thailand in the 1980s. In Singapore, they are a threat to the native Green-Crested Lizard. The Changeable Lizard is relatively common and found in a wide range of habitats. They appear to adapt well to humans and are thus not endangered. They are commonly found among the undergrowth in open habitats including highly urban areas.
Changeable Lizards eat mainly insects such as crickets, grasshoppers, ants and small vertebrates, including rodents and other lizards. Although they have teeth, these are designed for gripping prey and not tearing it up. So prey is swallowed whole, after it is stunned by shaking it about. Sometimes, young inexperienced Changeable Lizards may choke on prey which are too large. Occasionally changeable lizards also consume vegetable matter.
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Iguania
Family: Agamidae
Genus: Calotes
Species: C. versicolor
Binomial name Calotes versicolor
Eutropis multifasciata
Common Sun Skink
Common Sun Skink
Eutropis multifasciata, commonly known as the East Indian brown mabuya, many-lined sun skink, many-striped skink, common sun skink or (ambiguously) as golden skink, is a species of skink.
Order: Squamata
Family: Scincidae
Genus: Eutropis
Species: E. multifasciata
Binomial name Eutropis multifasciata
Order: Squamata
Family: Scincidae
Genus: Eutropis
Species: E. multifasciata
Binomial name Eutropis multifasciata
Varanus nebulosus
Clouded Monitor Lizard
Clouded Monitor Lizard
The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is a species of monitor lizard, native to Burma, Thailand and Indochina to West Malaysia, Singapore, Java, and Sumatra.
They are excellent tree climbers. It belongs to the subgenus Empagusia along with the Bengal monitor, the Dumeril's monitor and other monitor lizards. It had previously been listed as a subspecies of Varanus bengalensis by some herpetologists. It is a diurnal monitor.
Clouded monitors can, on occasion, grow up to 1.5 metres long.
Monitor lizards are mostly carnivorous; some also scavenge on carrion. It can be found in forests, mangrove swamps, and even man-made canals.
Monitor lizards feed on a huge variety of food types (eg. insects, crabs, snakes, fish, etc); they control the population of their prey, and in turn are a source of food to larger predators (eg. crocodiles).
They also play an important role as scavengers in biomass decomposition and recycling.
The monitor’s saliva contains over 50 bacteria that infect and kill their prey slowly.
The carrion meat that get stuck in the monitor’s teeth are teeming with bacteria that can cause infections in the bite wound. However, the main cause of death of preys is the venom secreted by the monitor.
Contrary to previous beliefs, most lizards do possess glands that secrete venom. While the monitor uses its venom to kill its small preys (symptoms include rapid swelling, drop in blood pressure, and blood clot inhibition), it has a relatively mild effect on humans.
They are naturally shy and would rather stay away from humans. Like most wild animals, they do not attack unless provoked. As long as you keep your distance and leave them alone, you will be fine.
Order: Squamata
Family: Varanidae
Genus: Varanus
Subgenus: Empagusia
Species: V. nebulosus
Binomial name Varanus nebulosus
They are excellent tree climbers. It belongs to the subgenus Empagusia along with the Bengal monitor, the Dumeril's monitor and other monitor lizards. It had previously been listed as a subspecies of Varanus bengalensis by some herpetologists. It is a diurnal monitor.
Clouded monitors can, on occasion, grow up to 1.5 metres long.
Monitor lizards are mostly carnivorous; some also scavenge on carrion. It can be found in forests, mangrove swamps, and even man-made canals.
Monitor lizards feed on a huge variety of food types (eg. insects, crabs, snakes, fish, etc); they control the population of their prey, and in turn are a source of food to larger predators (eg. crocodiles).
They also play an important role as scavengers in biomass decomposition and recycling.
The monitor’s saliva contains over 50 bacteria that infect and kill their prey slowly.
The carrion meat that get stuck in the monitor’s teeth are teeming with bacteria that can cause infections in the bite wound. However, the main cause of death of preys is the venom secreted by the monitor.
Contrary to previous beliefs, most lizards do possess glands that secrete venom. While the monitor uses its venom to kill its small preys (symptoms include rapid swelling, drop in blood pressure, and blood clot inhibition), it has a relatively mild effect on humans.
They are naturally shy and would rather stay away from humans. Like most wild animals, they do not attack unless provoked. As long as you keep your distance and leave them alone, you will be fine.
Order: Squamata
Family: Varanidae
Genus: Varanus
Subgenus: Empagusia
Species: V. nebulosus
Binomial name Varanus nebulosus