Orestes draegeri
The Phasmatidae are a family of the stick insects (order Phasmatodea). They belong to the superfamily Anareolatae of suborder Verophasmatodea.
The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida or Phasmatoptera) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walkingsticks, stick animals, or bug sticks.
The genus Orestes combines relatively small and elongated Phasmatodea species from Southeast and East Asia.
The representatives of this genus are rather small with 3.2 to 4.5 centimetres (1.3 to 1.8 in) in the males and 3.8 to 5.5 centimetres (1.5 to 2.2 in) in females.
Both sexes are always wingless and colored in different shades of beige to brown and often show high-contrast drawings with white areas, especially in younger females and female nymphs.
Males are more of a single color in different shades of brown. The thorax is cylindrical or approximately cylindrical, unlike that of representatives of the genus Pylaemenes, whose meso and metanotum is flattened or slightly roof-shaped, with a clearly raised central and two lateral longitudinal keels.
The mesonotum of the Orestes females is slightly widened to the rear and there are often two lateral longitudinal rows of tubercles. The legs and especially the femura of the forelegs often have clear edges.
The abdomen of adult, egg-laying females is clearly enlarged towards the middle. On the fourth and fifth segment there is a clear elevation and on the ninth there is a centrally seated, rearward-facing ridge.
The last segment, called anal segment, unlike in Pylaemenes, is not strongly triangularly tapered backwards and notched at the end.
As is typical for the Dataminae, they do not have an ovipositor to lay eggs. There are three rows of appendages on the head. These can merge to form a towering structure, which is typical of the species, such as in Orestes guangxiensis or Orestes bachmaensis.
In other species they are reduced to the size of tubercles, which means that the head can be very flat, such as in Orestes mouhotii or Orestes draegeri. In the males, these structures are always formed as distinct areas formed into spines, spikes or, as in Orestes mouhotii and Orestes draegeri, into semicircular, ear-like structures (auricles).
Their legs are shaped like those of the females. On the thorax there may be smaller bumps or several, sometimes long, spines on the metathorax as in Orestes botot or on the meso- and metathorax as in Orestes diabolicus are located. Overall, they appear in the habitus significantly smaller and slimmer than the females.
In contrast to Pylaemenes males, their ninth abdominal tergite is not widened backwards.
The relatively large distribution area extends from Southeast to East Asia and extends from the Andamans, over Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Singapore to Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and South China including Hong Kong to the south of Japan. Males are sometimes rare or not known and some of the species are at least regional
parthenogenetic.
The nocturnal animals hide during the day in the leafy layer of the ground or behind bark and it will pretend to be dead when discovered.
Orestes draegeri is a species of stick insects in the subfamily Dataminae and tribe Datamini.
Orestes draegeri is a very slender and elongated species with relatively short legs. It is very similar to Orestes mouhotii, from which it differs in its relatively shorter legs.
Males are approximately 40.0 to 41.2 millimetres (1.57 to 1.62 in) long. In front of and behind the eyes there are mostly pairs of more or less distinct structures that are species-specific (see also acanthotaxy of Heteropterygidae).
The three pairs of occipital spines are designed as follows : The anterior supra-antennals are recognizable spinose and slightly pointed outwards. The pairs of anterior and posterior supra-occipitals behind it are smaller. The vertex is significantly enlarged, blunt and laterally compressed with the anterior coronals, which creates conspicuous, ear-like horns (auricles).
The paired supra-orbitals behind the eyes are recognizable bluntly spinous. Posterior and lateral coronals are recognizable as small pointed tubercles that form a crown with the tip of the postocular carina located behind the eye, a distinct edge and the eyes are relatively small, circular and protruding strongly hemispherical.
The antennae are shorter than the legs and consist of 23 segments. While the structures on the head resemble those of Orestes mouhotii, these are missing in the males of Orestes draegeri distinct conical hump at posterior margin of the mesonotum which is slightly sulcate medially.
The females are approximately 45.7 to 47.1 millimetres (1.80 to 1.85 in) long. Their head is flat and shows only indistinct structures in the form of tubercles.
The tibae of middle legs are compressed laterally at the top and have an indistinct tooth at the end and a clear tooth in the middle.
The fourth tergite of the abdomen is indistinctly widened and almost parallel to the rear. On the back of the ninth tergite there is a clearly elongated, strongly roof-like ridge in the center. In the females of Orestes mouhotii this crest is not roof-like and elongated and not notched at the back.
The species was found by Joachim Bresseel and Jérôme Constant in 2012 in the seasonal tropical forests in the Vietnamese provinces Lâm Đồng and Đồng Nai and in the Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve, which includes Cát Tiên National Park (type locality).
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Phasmatodea
Superfamily : Bacilloidea
Family : Heteropterygidae
Subfamily : Dataminae
Genus : Orestes
Species : O. draegeri
Binomial name Orestes draegeri
Bresseel & Constant, 2018
The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida or Phasmatoptera) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walkingsticks, stick animals, or bug sticks.
The genus Orestes combines relatively small and elongated Phasmatodea species from Southeast and East Asia.
The representatives of this genus are rather small with 3.2 to 4.5 centimetres (1.3 to 1.8 in) in the males and 3.8 to 5.5 centimetres (1.5 to 2.2 in) in females.
Both sexes are always wingless and colored in different shades of beige to brown and often show high-contrast drawings with white areas, especially in younger females and female nymphs.
Males are more of a single color in different shades of brown. The thorax is cylindrical or approximately cylindrical, unlike that of representatives of the genus Pylaemenes, whose meso and metanotum is flattened or slightly roof-shaped, with a clearly raised central and two lateral longitudinal keels.
The mesonotum of the Orestes females is slightly widened to the rear and there are often two lateral longitudinal rows of tubercles. The legs and especially the femura of the forelegs often have clear edges.
The abdomen of adult, egg-laying females is clearly enlarged towards the middle. On the fourth and fifth segment there is a clear elevation and on the ninth there is a centrally seated, rearward-facing ridge.
The last segment, called anal segment, unlike in Pylaemenes, is not strongly triangularly tapered backwards and notched at the end.
As is typical for the Dataminae, they do not have an ovipositor to lay eggs. There are three rows of appendages on the head. These can merge to form a towering structure, which is typical of the species, such as in Orestes guangxiensis or Orestes bachmaensis.
In other species they are reduced to the size of tubercles, which means that the head can be very flat, such as in Orestes mouhotii or Orestes draegeri. In the males, these structures are always formed as distinct areas formed into spines, spikes or, as in Orestes mouhotii and Orestes draegeri, into semicircular, ear-like structures (auricles).
Their legs are shaped like those of the females. On the thorax there may be smaller bumps or several, sometimes long, spines on the metathorax as in Orestes botot or on the meso- and metathorax as in Orestes diabolicus are located. Overall, they appear in the habitus significantly smaller and slimmer than the females.
In contrast to Pylaemenes males, their ninth abdominal tergite is not widened backwards.
The relatively large distribution area extends from Southeast to East Asia and extends from the Andamans, over Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Singapore to Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and South China including Hong Kong to the south of Japan. Males are sometimes rare or not known and some of the species are at least regional
parthenogenetic.
The nocturnal animals hide during the day in the leafy layer of the ground or behind bark and it will pretend to be dead when discovered.
Orestes draegeri is a species of stick insects in the subfamily Dataminae and tribe Datamini.
Orestes draegeri is a very slender and elongated species with relatively short legs. It is very similar to Orestes mouhotii, from which it differs in its relatively shorter legs.
Males are approximately 40.0 to 41.2 millimetres (1.57 to 1.62 in) long. In front of and behind the eyes there are mostly pairs of more or less distinct structures that are species-specific (see also acanthotaxy of Heteropterygidae).
The three pairs of occipital spines are designed as follows : The anterior supra-antennals are recognizable spinose and slightly pointed outwards. The pairs of anterior and posterior supra-occipitals behind it are smaller. The vertex is significantly enlarged, blunt and laterally compressed with the anterior coronals, which creates conspicuous, ear-like horns (auricles).
The paired supra-orbitals behind the eyes are recognizable bluntly spinous. Posterior and lateral coronals are recognizable as small pointed tubercles that form a crown with the tip of the postocular carina located behind the eye, a distinct edge and the eyes are relatively small, circular and protruding strongly hemispherical.
The antennae are shorter than the legs and consist of 23 segments. While the structures on the head resemble those of Orestes mouhotii, these are missing in the males of Orestes draegeri distinct conical hump at posterior margin of the mesonotum which is slightly sulcate medially.
The females are approximately 45.7 to 47.1 millimetres (1.80 to 1.85 in) long. Their head is flat and shows only indistinct structures in the form of tubercles.
The tibae of middle legs are compressed laterally at the top and have an indistinct tooth at the end and a clear tooth in the middle.
The fourth tergite of the abdomen is indistinctly widened and almost parallel to the rear. On the back of the ninth tergite there is a clearly elongated, strongly roof-like ridge in the center. In the females of Orestes mouhotii this crest is not roof-like and elongated and not notched at the back.
The species was found by Joachim Bresseel and Jérôme Constant in 2012 in the seasonal tropical forests in the Vietnamese provinces Lâm Đồng and Đồng Nai and in the Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve, which includes Cát Tiên National Park (type locality).
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Phasmatodea
Superfamily : Bacilloidea
Family : Heteropterygidae
Subfamily : Dataminae
Genus : Orestes
Species : O. draegeri
Binomial name Orestes draegeri
Bresseel & Constant, 2018
Chremistica umbrosa
Pulau Ubin : 13-4-24
Cicadidae, the true cicadas, is one of two families of cicadas, containing almost all living cicada species with more than 3,200 species worldwide.
Cicada species are classified by many different factors: Geography, habitat, season, diurnal patterns of reproductive activity and songs (Moore, 1993).
Chremistica is a genus of cicadas from Southeast Asia and Madagascar.
Its distribution encompasses India, Sri Lanka, continental South East Asia, Taiwan, Philippines,
Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, viz., Lombok, Sumba, Sumbawa and Timor, and Sulawesi, while one group of species is recorded from Madagascar
As with all cicadas, C.umbrosa is hemimetabulous.
Hemimetabolism or hemimetaboly, also called partial metamorphosis and paurometabolism, is the mode of development of certain insects that includes three distinct stages: the egg, nymph, and the adult stage, or imago.
These groups go through gradual changes; there is no pupal stage. The nymph often has a thin exoskeleton and resembles the adult stage but lacks wings and functional reproductive organs.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Hemiptera
Family : Cicadidae
Genus : Chremistica
Stål, 1870
Species : Chremistica umbrosa
distant 1904
Cicada species are classified by many different factors: Geography, habitat, season, diurnal patterns of reproductive activity and songs (Moore, 1993).
Chremistica is a genus of cicadas from Southeast Asia and Madagascar.
Its distribution encompasses India, Sri Lanka, continental South East Asia, Taiwan, Philippines,
Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, viz., Lombok, Sumba, Sumbawa and Timor, and Sulawesi, while one group of species is recorded from Madagascar
As with all cicadas, C.umbrosa is hemimetabulous.
Hemimetabolism or hemimetaboly, also called partial metamorphosis and paurometabolism, is the mode of development of certain insects that includes three distinct stages: the egg, nymph, and the adult stage, or imago.
These groups go through gradual changes; there is no pupal stage. The nymph often has a thin exoskeleton and resembles the adult stage but lacks wings and functional reproductive organs.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Hemiptera
Family : Cicadidae
Genus : Chremistica
Stål, 1870
Species : Chremistica umbrosa
distant 1904
Dorylaea orini
Malaysian zebra-stripe cockroach
Malaysian zebra-stripe cockroach
T15 : 24-8-23
Dorylaea is a genus of Blattoidea in the family blattid cockroaches. They are nocturnal.
This beautiful Malaysian zebra-stripe cockroach Dorylaea orini is an addition to the hobbyist. It is a relatively new to described species in the genus Dorylaea.
It was named by Dr. Luis M. Roth of Harvard University in 2002 (Museum of Comparative Zoology type database 35085).
Phylum : Arthropoda
Ubosphylum : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Blattodea
Family : Blattidae
Genus : Dorylaea
Speces : Dorylaea orini
L. M. Roth
This beautiful Malaysian zebra-stripe cockroach Dorylaea orini is an addition to the hobbyist. It is a relatively new to described species in the genus Dorylaea.
It was named by Dr. Luis M. Roth of Harvard University in 2002 (Museum of Comparative Zoology type database 35085).
Phylum : Arthropoda
Ubosphylum : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Blattodea
Family : Blattidae
Genus : Dorylaea
Speces : Dorylaea orini
L. M. Roth
Gryllotalpa nymphicus Tan
mole cricket
mole cricket
T15 : 6-8-23
Gryllotalpidae the mole crickets comprise seven genera with about 100 species worldwide. Most species are found in the cosmopolitan genus Gryllotalpa.
The scientific name is 'mole cricket', derived from the Latin 'gryllus' (cricket) and 'talpa' (mole) because of the fine dense fur which covers it and its subterranean habits and because of the mole-like forelegs adapted for digging, a good example of convergent evolution.
Mole crickets use the extraordinarily developed forelegs for digging deep permanent galleries and foraging for plant roots. Some mole crickets are known to collect seeds and store them in larders in circular chambers underground for future use. Some species brood eggs in chambers, and in many species, both sexes stridulate.
The calling songs are often of short duration and very loud. The horn-shaped entrance chamber of the burrow is used differently by different species to increase the male's acoustical output. Most species are herbivorous, but a few are carnivorous. Several cause major damage to crops by feeding on roots, on seedlings, or both.
Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae in the order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets).
Mole crickets are cylindrical bodied, fossorial insects about 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long as adults, with small eyes and shovel-like fore limbs highly developed for burrowing. They are present in many parts of the world and where they have arrived in new regions, may become agricultural pests.
Mole crickets have three life stages: eggs, nymphs and adults. Most of their lives in these stages are spent underground, but adults have wings and disperse in the breeding season. They vary in their diet: some species are herbivores, mainly feeding on roots, others are omnivores, including worms and grubs in their diet and a few are largely predatory.
Male mole crickets have an exceptionally loud song, they sing from a burrow that opens out into the air in the shape of an exponential horn. The song is an almost pure tone, modulated into chirps. It is used to attract females, either for mating, or for indicating favourable habitats for them to lay their eggs.
In Zambia, mole crickets are thought to bring good fortune, while in Latin America, they are said to predict rain. In Florida, where Neoscapteriscus mole crickets are not native, they are considered pests, and various biological controls have been used.
Mole crickets vary in size and appearance, but most of them are of moderate size for an insect, typically between 3.2 and 3.5 cm (1.3 and 1.4 in) long as adults. They are adapted for underground life and are cylindrical in shape and covered with fine, dense hairs. The head, fore limbs, and prothorax are heavily
sclerotised, but the abdomen is rather soft.
The head bears two threadlike antennae and a pair of beady eyes. The two pairs of wings are folded flat over the abdomen, in most species, the fore wings are short and rounded and the hind wings are membranous and reach or exceed the tip of the abdomen, however in some species the hind wings are reduced in size and the insect is unable to fly.
The fore legs are flattened for digging, but the hind legs are shaped somewhat like the legs of a true cricket, however these limbs are more adapted for pushing soil rather than leaping, which they do rarely and poorly. The nymphs resemble the adults apart from the absence of wings and genitalia, the wing pads become larger after each successive moult.
Adults of most species of mole cricket can fly powerfully, if not with agility, but males do so infrequently. The females typically take wing soon after sunset, and are attracted to areas where males are calling, which they do for about an hour after sunset. This may be to mate, or they may be influenced by the suitability of the habitat for egg-laying, as demonstrated by the number of males present and calling in the vicinity.
Mole crickets live almost entirely below ground, they can dig themselves under ground very rapidly digging tunnels of different kinds for the major functions of life, including feeding, escape from predators, attracting a mate (by singing), mating, and raising of young and can move along existing tunnels at high speed both forwards and backwards
Males attract mates by constructing specially shaped tunnels in which they sing. Mating takes place in the male's burrow, the male may widen a tunnel to make room for the female to mount, though in some species, mating is tail-to-tail.
Females lay their eggs either in their normal burrows or in specially dug brood chambers, which are sealed when complete in the case of the genus
Neoscapteriscus or not sealed in the case of genera Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla.
Mole crickets vary in their diets, some like the tawny mole cricket are herbivores, others are omnivores, feeding on larvae, worms, roots, and grasses, and others like the southern mole cricket are mainly predacious. They leave their burrows at night to forage for leaves and stems, which they drag
underground before consumption, as well as consuming roots underground.
Mole crickets are relatively common, but because they are nocturnal and spend nearly all their lives under ground in extensive tunnel systems, they are rarely seen. They inhabit agricultural fields and grassy areas. They are present in every continent except Antarctica, by 2014, 107 species had been described and more species are likely to be discovered, especially in Asia.
Gryllotalpa mole crickets have sometimes been used as food in West Java and Vietnam. In Thailand, mole crickets (Thai: กระชอน) are valued as food in Isan. They are usually eaten fried along with sticky rice.
In the Philippines, they are served as a delicacy called camaro in the province of Pampanga and are a tourist attraction. They are also served in parts of Northern
Luzon.
This species Gryllotalpa nymphicus is a new species of mole cricket found here in Singapore, it is a relatively rare and endemic (so far) and restricted to forests. It is often subterranean and rarely sighted.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Orthoptera
Suborder : Ensifera
Infraorder : Gryllidea
Superfamily : Gryllotalpoidea
Family : Gryllotalpidae
Saussure, 1870
Genus : Gryllotalpa
Species : Gryllotalpa nymphicus Tan
The scientific name is 'mole cricket', derived from the Latin 'gryllus' (cricket) and 'talpa' (mole) because of the fine dense fur which covers it and its subterranean habits and because of the mole-like forelegs adapted for digging, a good example of convergent evolution.
Mole crickets use the extraordinarily developed forelegs for digging deep permanent galleries and foraging for plant roots. Some mole crickets are known to collect seeds and store them in larders in circular chambers underground for future use. Some species brood eggs in chambers, and in many species, both sexes stridulate.
The calling songs are often of short duration and very loud. The horn-shaped entrance chamber of the burrow is used differently by different species to increase the male's acoustical output. Most species are herbivorous, but a few are carnivorous. Several cause major damage to crops by feeding on roots, on seedlings, or both.
Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae in the order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets).
Mole crickets are cylindrical bodied, fossorial insects about 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long as adults, with small eyes and shovel-like fore limbs highly developed for burrowing. They are present in many parts of the world and where they have arrived in new regions, may become agricultural pests.
Mole crickets have three life stages: eggs, nymphs and adults. Most of their lives in these stages are spent underground, but adults have wings and disperse in the breeding season. They vary in their diet: some species are herbivores, mainly feeding on roots, others are omnivores, including worms and grubs in their diet and a few are largely predatory.
Male mole crickets have an exceptionally loud song, they sing from a burrow that opens out into the air in the shape of an exponential horn. The song is an almost pure tone, modulated into chirps. It is used to attract females, either for mating, or for indicating favourable habitats for them to lay their eggs.
In Zambia, mole crickets are thought to bring good fortune, while in Latin America, they are said to predict rain. In Florida, where Neoscapteriscus mole crickets are not native, they are considered pests, and various biological controls have been used.
Mole crickets vary in size and appearance, but most of them are of moderate size for an insect, typically between 3.2 and 3.5 cm (1.3 and 1.4 in) long as adults. They are adapted for underground life and are cylindrical in shape and covered with fine, dense hairs. The head, fore limbs, and prothorax are heavily
sclerotised, but the abdomen is rather soft.
The head bears two threadlike antennae and a pair of beady eyes. The two pairs of wings are folded flat over the abdomen, in most species, the fore wings are short and rounded and the hind wings are membranous and reach or exceed the tip of the abdomen, however in some species the hind wings are reduced in size and the insect is unable to fly.
The fore legs are flattened for digging, but the hind legs are shaped somewhat like the legs of a true cricket, however these limbs are more adapted for pushing soil rather than leaping, which they do rarely and poorly. The nymphs resemble the adults apart from the absence of wings and genitalia, the wing pads become larger after each successive moult.
Adults of most species of mole cricket can fly powerfully, if not with agility, but males do so infrequently. The females typically take wing soon after sunset, and are attracted to areas where males are calling, which they do for about an hour after sunset. This may be to mate, or they may be influenced by the suitability of the habitat for egg-laying, as demonstrated by the number of males present and calling in the vicinity.
Mole crickets live almost entirely below ground, they can dig themselves under ground very rapidly digging tunnels of different kinds for the major functions of life, including feeding, escape from predators, attracting a mate (by singing), mating, and raising of young and can move along existing tunnels at high speed both forwards and backwards
Males attract mates by constructing specially shaped tunnels in which they sing. Mating takes place in the male's burrow, the male may widen a tunnel to make room for the female to mount, though in some species, mating is tail-to-tail.
Females lay their eggs either in their normal burrows or in specially dug brood chambers, which are sealed when complete in the case of the genus
Neoscapteriscus or not sealed in the case of genera Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla.
Mole crickets vary in their diets, some like the tawny mole cricket are herbivores, others are omnivores, feeding on larvae, worms, roots, and grasses, and others like the southern mole cricket are mainly predacious. They leave their burrows at night to forage for leaves and stems, which they drag
underground before consumption, as well as consuming roots underground.
Mole crickets are relatively common, but because they are nocturnal and spend nearly all their lives under ground in extensive tunnel systems, they are rarely seen. They inhabit agricultural fields and grassy areas. They are present in every continent except Antarctica, by 2014, 107 species had been described and more species are likely to be discovered, especially in Asia.
Gryllotalpa mole crickets have sometimes been used as food in West Java and Vietnam. In Thailand, mole crickets (Thai: กระชอน) are valued as food in Isan. They are usually eaten fried along with sticky rice.
In the Philippines, they are served as a delicacy called camaro in the province of Pampanga and are a tourist attraction. They are also served in parts of Northern
Luzon.
This species Gryllotalpa nymphicus is a new species of mole cricket found here in Singapore, it is a relatively rare and endemic (so far) and restricted to forests. It is often subterranean and rarely sighted.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Orthoptera
Suborder : Ensifera
Infraorder : Gryllidea
Superfamily : Gryllotalpoidea
Family : Gryllotalpidae
Saussure, 1870
Genus : Gryllotalpa
Species : Gryllotalpa nymphicus Tan
Panesthia angustipennis
Burrowing giant cockroach
Burrowing giant cockroach
Panesthia is a large genus of burrowing giant cockroach in the subfamily Panesthiinae. It is subsocial and its species are mainly found in Southeast Asia, coastal East Asia, Australasia, and Indo-Malaysia.
Adult wood-feeding cockroach Panesthia angustipennis is a species of Blattodea in the family giant cockroaches. They are nocturnal.
Cockroaches of the genus Panesthia inhabit decaying wood in self-excavated tunnels (Asahina, 1991).
Distribution: India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands), Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal. Elsewhere: Africa; Australia; Burma; Cambodia; China; Indonesia; Malakka; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Vietnam and Zanzibar.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Subfamily: Panesthiinae
Genus: Panesthia
Serville, 1831
Species: Panesthia angustipennis (Illiger 1801)
Synonyms
Dicellonotus Butler, 1882
Proterodia Costa, 1866
Adult wood-feeding cockroach Panesthia angustipennis is a species of Blattodea in the family giant cockroaches. They are nocturnal.
Cockroaches of the genus Panesthia inhabit decaying wood in self-excavated tunnels (Asahina, 1991).
Distribution: India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands), Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal. Elsewhere: Africa; Australia; Burma; Cambodia; China; Indonesia; Malakka; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Vietnam and Zanzibar.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Subfamily: Panesthiinae
Genus: Panesthia
Serville, 1831
Species: Panesthia angustipennis (Illiger 1801)
Synonyms
Dicellonotus Butler, 1882
Proterodia Costa, 1866
Asceles malaccae
stick insects
stick insects
The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida, Phasmatoptera or Spectra) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walking sticks, stick animals, or bug sticks.
They are also occasionally referred to as Devil's darning needles, although this name is shared by both dragonflies and crane flies.
They can be generally referred to as phasmatodeans, phasmids, or ghost insects, with phasmids in the family Phylliidae called leaf insects, leaf-bugs, walking leaves, or bug leaves.
Asceles is a genus of stick insects in the tribe Necrosciini. Some of the species of Asceles have a distribution in Malaysia and Singapore.
Asceles malaccae (Saussure 1868) also known as Necroscia malaccae (Saussure, 1868)
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Lonchodidae
Tribe: Necrosciini
Genus: Asceles
Species : Asceles malaccae (Sauasure 1868)
They are also occasionally referred to as Devil's darning needles, although this name is shared by both dragonflies and crane flies.
They can be generally referred to as phasmatodeans, phasmids, or ghost insects, with phasmids in the family Phylliidae called leaf insects, leaf-bugs, walking leaves, or bug leaves.
Asceles is a genus of stick insects in the tribe Necrosciini. Some of the species of Asceles have a distribution in Malaysia and Singapore.
Asceles malaccae (Saussure 1868) also known as Necroscia malaccae (Saussure, 1868)
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Lonchodidae
Tribe: Necrosciini
Genus: Asceles
Species : Asceles malaccae (Sauasure 1868)
Female adult
Morphna dotata
giant cockroack
giant cockroack
Blattodea is an order of insects that contains cockroaches and termites.
Formerly, termites were considered a separate order, Isoptera, but genetic and molecular evidence suggests they evolved from within the cockroach lineage,
cladistically making them cockroaches as well.
The Blattodea and the mantis (order Mantodea) are now all considered part of the superorder Dictyoptera.
Blattodea includes approximately 4,400 species of cockroach in almost 500 genera, and about 3,000 species of termite in around 300 genera.
Over 4,000 species of cockroaches are found in every corner of the globe with each continent having its own indigenous species.
Most of these are omnivores or detritivores and live in a range of habitats such as among leaf litter, in rotting wood, in thick vegetation, in crevices, in cavities beneath bark, under logs and among debris.
Some are arboreal, some live in caves and some are aquatic. A small number of species have taken to living in close proximity to humans in buildings, have been transported around the world by them, and are regarded as pests.
The genus Morphna includes relatively large and wide cockroaches. It is characterized by the structure of its hind tarsi, matatarsus slightly shorter or about as long as other segments combined with large euplantula along lower margin, tarsal spine few or absent.
The genus Morphna originally included four species from South and South-East Asia (Shelford 1910, p. 6, 7): Epilampra amplipennis Walker, E. plana Brunner von Wattenwyl, E. maculata Brunner von Watenwyl and E. badia Brunner von Wattenwyl (= E. dotata Walker). E. maculata was designated as the type species by Hebard (1930).
The male genitalia of M. dotata were described and illustrated by Anisyutkin & Gorochov (2001).
According to Beccaloni (2007), there are 12 species in the genus Morphna: M. amplipennis (Walker), M. auriculata (Brunner von Wattenwyl), M. badia (Brunner von Wattenwyl), M. clypeata Anisyutkin & Gorochov, M. decolyi (Bolivar), M. dotata (Walker), M. humeralis (Bruijning), M. imperatoria (Stål), M. maculata (Brunner von wattenwyl), M. moloch (Rehn), M. plana (Brunner von Wattenwyl) and M. pustulata (Hanitsch)
Morphna dotata is a species of Blattodea in the family giant cockroaches. They are nocturnal.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Superorder : Dictyoptera
Order : Blattodea
Superfamily : Blaberoidea
Family : Blaberidae
Genus : Morphna
Species : Morphna dotata (Walker & F. 1869)
Formerly, termites were considered a separate order, Isoptera, but genetic and molecular evidence suggests they evolved from within the cockroach lineage,
cladistically making them cockroaches as well.
The Blattodea and the mantis (order Mantodea) are now all considered part of the superorder Dictyoptera.
Blattodea includes approximately 4,400 species of cockroach in almost 500 genera, and about 3,000 species of termite in around 300 genera.
Over 4,000 species of cockroaches are found in every corner of the globe with each continent having its own indigenous species.
Most of these are omnivores or detritivores and live in a range of habitats such as among leaf litter, in rotting wood, in thick vegetation, in crevices, in cavities beneath bark, under logs and among debris.
Some are arboreal, some live in caves and some are aquatic. A small number of species have taken to living in close proximity to humans in buildings, have been transported around the world by them, and are regarded as pests.
The genus Morphna includes relatively large and wide cockroaches. It is characterized by the structure of its hind tarsi, matatarsus slightly shorter or about as long as other segments combined with large euplantula along lower margin, tarsal spine few or absent.
The genus Morphna originally included four species from South and South-East Asia (Shelford 1910, p. 6, 7): Epilampra amplipennis Walker, E. plana Brunner von Wattenwyl, E. maculata Brunner von Watenwyl and E. badia Brunner von Wattenwyl (= E. dotata Walker). E. maculata was designated as the type species by Hebard (1930).
The male genitalia of M. dotata were described and illustrated by Anisyutkin & Gorochov (2001).
According to Beccaloni (2007), there are 12 species in the genus Morphna: M. amplipennis (Walker), M. auriculata (Brunner von Wattenwyl), M. badia (Brunner von Wattenwyl), M. clypeata Anisyutkin & Gorochov, M. decolyi (Bolivar), M. dotata (Walker), M. humeralis (Bruijning), M. imperatoria (Stål), M. maculata (Brunner von wattenwyl), M. moloch (Rehn), M. plana (Brunner von Wattenwyl) and M. pustulata (Hanitsch)
Morphna dotata is a species of Blattodea in the family giant cockroaches. They are nocturnal.
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Superorder : Dictyoptera
Order : Blattodea
Superfamily : Blaberoidea
Family : Blaberidae
Genus : Morphna
Species : Morphna dotata (Walker & F. 1869)
Termites
It is interesting to note that one country’s pest is another one’s food. The benefits of termites comes in the form of using their destructive nature as waste removal.
Termites have a great importance for forest ecology as decomposers and more. Termites help to decompose dead trees and turn them back into fertile soil, which can help forests regrow faster.
In addition to that, they also help aerate the soil which can help water and nutrients reach the plants and trees better, therefore increasing soil quality even more.
There aren’t many insects that can decompose trees and almost any plant like termites can, they also put the nutrients that were taken from that plant and put them back into the soil when they are decomposed. If there weren’t insects like termites places like rain forests might not survive.
Termites are mainly known for damage caused to human beings, both in urban and rural areas.
However, these insects play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter in tropical regions and are important natural resources, which are widely used in traditional medicine and are also consumed by human populations in several parts of the world.
Considered as important natural resources, insects are, in many ways, a basic component of the diets of humans and other animals and have played an important role as a source of medicinal resources.
Termites are a source of medicinal and food resources to various human populations in various locations of the world, showing their potential for being used as an alternative protein source in human or livestock diets, as well as a source for new medicines.
Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes (eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter, occurring on every continent except Antarctica.
Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blattodea (along with cockroaches).
Eusociality exists in certain insects, crustaceans, and mammals. It is mostly observed and studied in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) and in Isoptera (termites). A colony has caste differences: queens and reproductive males take the roles of the sole reproducers, while soldiers and workers work together to create a living situation favorable for the brood.
Termites were once classified in a separate order from cockroaches, but recent phylogenetic studies indicate that they evolved from cockroaches, as they are deeply nested within the group, and the sister group to wood eating cockroaches of the genus
Cryptocercus.
Like ants and some bees and wasps from the separate order Hymenoptera, termites divide as "workers" and "soldiers" that are usually sterile. All colonies have fertile males called "kings" and one or more fertile females called "queens". Termites mostly feed on dead plant material and cellulose, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung.
Termites are major detritivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and plant matter is of considerable ecological importance.
Termites have several effects on humans. They are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures and are used in many traditional medicines.
Several hundred species are economically significant as pests that can cause serious damage to buildings, crops, or plantation forests. Some species, such as the West Indian drywood termite (Cryptotermes brevis), are regarded as invasive species.
A termite nest is also known as a termitary or termitarium (plural termitaria or termitariums). In earlier English, termites were known as "wood ants" or "white ants". The modern term was first used in 1781.
Termites are usually small, measuring between 4 to 15 millimetres in length. The largest of all extant termites are the queens of the species Macrotermes bellicosus, measuring up to over 10 centimetres (4 in) in length.
Most worker and soldier termites are completely blind as they do not have a pair of eyes. However, some species, such as Hodotermes mossambicus, have compound eyes which they use for orientation and to distinguish sunlight from moonlight.
The alates (winged males and females) have eyes along with lateral ocelli.
Lateral ocelli, however, are not found in all termites, absent in the families Hodotermitidae, Termopsidae, and Archotermopsidae.
Like other insects, termites have a small tongue-shaped labrum and a clypeus; the clypeus is divided into a postclypeus and anteclypeus.
Termite antennae have a number of functions such as the sensing of touch, taste, odours (including pheromones), heat and vibration.
The three basic segments of a termite antenna include a scape, a pedicel (typically shorter than the scape), and the flagellum (all segments beyond the scape and pedicel). The mouth parts contain a maxillae, a labium, and a set of mandibles. The maxillae and labium have palps that help termites sense food and handling.
Termites are detritivores, consuming dead plants at any level of decomposition. They also play a vital role in the ecosystem by recycling waste material such as dead wood, faeces and plants. Many species eat cellulose, having a specialised midgut that breaks down the fibre.
Some species of termite practice fungiculture.
They maintain a "garden" of specialised fungi of genus Termitomyces, which are nourished by the excrement of the insects. When the fungi are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the intestines of the termites to complete the cycle by germinating in the fresh faecal pellets.
Termitomyces is a genus of basidiomycete fungi belonging to the family Lyophyllaceae. There are 30-40 species in the genus, all of which are completely dependent on termites to survive.
Termites are placed into two groups: the lower termites and higher termites. The lower termites predominately feed on wood. As wood is difficult to digest, termites prefer to consume fungus-infected wood because it is easier to digest and the fungi are high in protein.
Meanwhile, the higher termites consume a wide variety of materials, including faeces, humus, grass, leaves and roots. The gut of the lower termites contains many species of bacteria along with protozoa and Holomastigotoides, while the higher termites only have a few species of bacteria with no protozoa.
A termite nest can be considered as being composed of two parts, the inanimate and the animate. The animate is all of the termites living inside the colony, and the inanimate part is the structure itself, which is constructed by the termites. Nests can be broadly separated into three main categories: subterranean (completely below ground), epigeal (protruding above the soil surface), and arboreal (built above ground, but always connected to the ground via shelter tubes).
Epigeal nests (mounds) protrude from the earth with ground contact and are made out of earth and mud.
Most termites construct underground colonies rather than multifunctional nests and mounds. Primitive termites of today nest in wooden structures such as logs, stumps and the dead parts of trees, as did termites millions of years ago.
Researchers have suggested that termites are suitable candidates for human consumption and space agriculture, as they are high in protein and can be used to convert inedible waste to consumable products for humans.
Termites are eaten around the world, including in Africa, Asia, and South America, these insects are eaten to increase protein and high fat content consumption (and thus energy and many important minerals and vitamins) in rural areas or areas that experience higher rates of malnutrition and they are high in amino acids and can be found somewhat easily.
Termites can bite or sting, but they do not carry diseases that are harmful to humans and won’t hurt you if cooked properly.
Most commonly, termites are cooked in a pan, but they can also be fried or eaten raw. Due to their high oil content, they are nutty in flavor once cooked.
Termites are one of the tastiest forms of protein available on the planet. Termites are best toasted or lightly fried until they are slightly crisp. Since their body is rich in oil, very little or no additional oil is needed.
Soldier termites can be coaxed from their tunnels by probing their mounds with long reeds which they clamp onto. They can be preserved by dry frying in salt until they are crispy. They can then be made into a stew with tomato, onion and whatever spices you like.
Termites are consumed by people in many different cultures around the world. In many parts of Africa, the alates are an important factor in the diets of native populations.
These insects are particularly important in impoverished countries where malnutrition is common, as the protein from termites can help improve the human diet.
Termite alates are high in nutrition with adequate levels of fat, protein and vitamins . They are regarded as pleasant in taste, having a nut-like flavour after they are cooked.
Flying termites (alates) are traditionally caught by placing pots of water under lights, which attract them.
Alates are collected when the rainy season begins. During a nuptial flight, they are typically seen around lights to which they are attracted, and so nets are set up on lamps and captured alates are later collected.
The wings are removed through a technique that is similar to winnowing. The best result comes when they are lightly roasted on a hot plate or fried until crisp. Oil is not required as their bodies usually contain sufficient amounts of oil.
Termites are typically eaten when livestock is lean and tribal crops have not yet developed or produced any food, or if food stocks from a previous growing season are limited.
It's important to prepare the insects properly before eating : Wash the insects, Boil, steam or fry them for at least five minutes and eat the prepared insects directly after cooking.
If not eaten immediately, the insects must be preserved. Either keep them in a fridge or freezer, or sun-dry them to preserve them. They can last for a few days.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Cohort: Polyneoptera
Superorder: Dictyoptera
Order: Blattodea
Infraorder: Isoptera
Brullé, 1832
Termites have a great importance for forest ecology as decomposers and more. Termites help to decompose dead trees and turn them back into fertile soil, which can help forests regrow faster.
In addition to that, they also help aerate the soil which can help water and nutrients reach the plants and trees better, therefore increasing soil quality even more.
There aren’t many insects that can decompose trees and almost any plant like termites can, they also put the nutrients that were taken from that plant and put them back into the soil when they are decomposed. If there weren’t insects like termites places like rain forests might not survive.
Termites are mainly known for damage caused to human beings, both in urban and rural areas.
However, these insects play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter in tropical regions and are important natural resources, which are widely used in traditional medicine and are also consumed by human populations in several parts of the world.
Considered as important natural resources, insects are, in many ways, a basic component of the diets of humans and other animals and have played an important role as a source of medicinal resources.
Termites are a source of medicinal and food resources to various human populations in various locations of the world, showing their potential for being used as an alternative protein source in human or livestock diets, as well as a source for new medicines.
Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes (eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter, occurring on every continent except Antarctica.
Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blattodea (along with cockroaches).
Eusociality exists in certain insects, crustaceans, and mammals. It is mostly observed and studied in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) and in Isoptera (termites). A colony has caste differences: queens and reproductive males take the roles of the sole reproducers, while soldiers and workers work together to create a living situation favorable for the brood.
Termites were once classified in a separate order from cockroaches, but recent phylogenetic studies indicate that they evolved from cockroaches, as they are deeply nested within the group, and the sister group to wood eating cockroaches of the genus
Cryptocercus.
Like ants and some bees and wasps from the separate order Hymenoptera, termites divide as "workers" and "soldiers" that are usually sterile. All colonies have fertile males called "kings" and one or more fertile females called "queens". Termites mostly feed on dead plant material and cellulose, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung.
Termites are major detritivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and plant matter is of considerable ecological importance.
Termites have several effects on humans. They are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures and are used in many traditional medicines.
Several hundred species are economically significant as pests that can cause serious damage to buildings, crops, or plantation forests. Some species, such as the West Indian drywood termite (Cryptotermes brevis), are regarded as invasive species.
A termite nest is also known as a termitary or termitarium (plural termitaria or termitariums). In earlier English, termites were known as "wood ants" or "white ants". The modern term was first used in 1781.
Termites are usually small, measuring between 4 to 15 millimetres in length. The largest of all extant termites are the queens of the species Macrotermes bellicosus, measuring up to over 10 centimetres (4 in) in length.
Most worker and soldier termites are completely blind as they do not have a pair of eyes. However, some species, such as Hodotermes mossambicus, have compound eyes which they use for orientation and to distinguish sunlight from moonlight.
The alates (winged males and females) have eyes along with lateral ocelli.
Lateral ocelli, however, are not found in all termites, absent in the families Hodotermitidae, Termopsidae, and Archotermopsidae.
Like other insects, termites have a small tongue-shaped labrum and a clypeus; the clypeus is divided into a postclypeus and anteclypeus.
Termite antennae have a number of functions such as the sensing of touch, taste, odours (including pheromones), heat and vibration.
The three basic segments of a termite antenna include a scape, a pedicel (typically shorter than the scape), and the flagellum (all segments beyond the scape and pedicel). The mouth parts contain a maxillae, a labium, and a set of mandibles. The maxillae and labium have palps that help termites sense food and handling.
Termites are detritivores, consuming dead plants at any level of decomposition. They also play a vital role in the ecosystem by recycling waste material such as dead wood, faeces and plants. Many species eat cellulose, having a specialised midgut that breaks down the fibre.
Some species of termite practice fungiculture.
They maintain a "garden" of specialised fungi of genus Termitomyces, which are nourished by the excrement of the insects. When the fungi are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the intestines of the termites to complete the cycle by germinating in the fresh faecal pellets.
Termitomyces is a genus of basidiomycete fungi belonging to the family Lyophyllaceae. There are 30-40 species in the genus, all of which are completely dependent on termites to survive.
Termites are placed into two groups: the lower termites and higher termites. The lower termites predominately feed on wood. As wood is difficult to digest, termites prefer to consume fungus-infected wood because it is easier to digest and the fungi are high in protein.
Meanwhile, the higher termites consume a wide variety of materials, including faeces, humus, grass, leaves and roots. The gut of the lower termites contains many species of bacteria along with protozoa and Holomastigotoides, while the higher termites only have a few species of bacteria with no protozoa.
A termite nest can be considered as being composed of two parts, the inanimate and the animate. The animate is all of the termites living inside the colony, and the inanimate part is the structure itself, which is constructed by the termites. Nests can be broadly separated into three main categories: subterranean (completely below ground), epigeal (protruding above the soil surface), and arboreal (built above ground, but always connected to the ground via shelter tubes).
Epigeal nests (mounds) protrude from the earth with ground contact and are made out of earth and mud.
Most termites construct underground colonies rather than multifunctional nests and mounds. Primitive termites of today nest in wooden structures such as logs, stumps and the dead parts of trees, as did termites millions of years ago.
Researchers have suggested that termites are suitable candidates for human consumption and space agriculture, as they are high in protein and can be used to convert inedible waste to consumable products for humans.
Termites are eaten around the world, including in Africa, Asia, and South America, these insects are eaten to increase protein and high fat content consumption (and thus energy and many important minerals and vitamins) in rural areas or areas that experience higher rates of malnutrition and they are high in amino acids and can be found somewhat easily.
Termites can bite or sting, but they do not carry diseases that are harmful to humans and won’t hurt you if cooked properly.
Most commonly, termites are cooked in a pan, but they can also be fried or eaten raw. Due to their high oil content, they are nutty in flavor once cooked.
Termites are one of the tastiest forms of protein available on the planet. Termites are best toasted or lightly fried until they are slightly crisp. Since their body is rich in oil, very little or no additional oil is needed.
Soldier termites can be coaxed from their tunnels by probing their mounds with long reeds which they clamp onto. They can be preserved by dry frying in salt until they are crispy. They can then be made into a stew with tomato, onion and whatever spices you like.
Termites are consumed by people in many different cultures around the world. In many parts of Africa, the alates are an important factor in the diets of native populations.
These insects are particularly important in impoverished countries where malnutrition is common, as the protein from termites can help improve the human diet.
Termite alates are high in nutrition with adequate levels of fat, protein and vitamins . They are regarded as pleasant in taste, having a nut-like flavour after they are cooked.
Flying termites (alates) are traditionally caught by placing pots of water under lights, which attract them.
Alates are collected when the rainy season begins. During a nuptial flight, they are typically seen around lights to which they are attracted, and so nets are set up on lamps and captured alates are later collected.
The wings are removed through a technique that is similar to winnowing. The best result comes when they are lightly roasted on a hot plate or fried until crisp. Oil is not required as their bodies usually contain sufficient amounts of oil.
Termites are typically eaten when livestock is lean and tribal crops have not yet developed or produced any food, or if food stocks from a previous growing season are limited.
It's important to prepare the insects properly before eating : Wash the insects, Boil, steam or fry them for at least five minutes and eat the prepared insects directly after cooking.
If not eaten immediately, the insects must be preserved. Either keep them in a fridge or freezer, or sun-dry them to preserve them. They can last for a few days.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Cohort: Polyneoptera
Superorder: Dictyoptera
Order: Blattodea
Infraorder: Isoptera
Brullé, 1832
Termite Alates
Erucius Guttatus
Monkey grasshopper
Monkey grasshopper
Chorotypidae is a family of tropical Asian grasshoppers (order Orthoptera), formerly included within the family Eumastacidae.
These grasshoppers have a head that rises above the level of the thorax and short antennae. Some species have reduced wings, others have wings that widen towards the tips and still others have a flattened leaf-like shape. They lack abdominal tympani (hearing organs).
Erucius is a genus of "monkey grasshoppers" in the family Chorotypidae. Species in this genus can be found in Vietnam and Malesia, including the Philippines. It is the only genus in the subfamily Eruciinae.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Caelifera
Family: Chorotypidae
Subfamily: Eruciinae Burr, 1899
Genus: Erucius Stål, 1875
Species : E. Guttatus
These grasshoppers have a head that rises above the level of the thorax and short antennae. Some species have reduced wings, others have wings that widen towards the tips and still others have a flattened leaf-like shape. They lack abdominal tympani (hearing organs).
Erucius is a genus of "monkey grasshoppers" in the family Chorotypidae. Species in this genus can be found in Vietnam and Malesia, including the Philippines. It is the only genus in the subfamily Eruciinae.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Caelifera
Family: Chorotypidae
Subfamily: Eruciinae Burr, 1899
Genus: Erucius Stål, 1875
Species : E. Guttatus
Coccidae
scale insects
scale insects
The Coccidae....coccidae are a family of scale insects belonging to the superfamily Coccoidea.
They are commonly known as soft scales, wax scales or tortoise scales. The females are flat with elongated oval bodies and a smooth integument which may be covered with wax.
In some genera they possess legs but in others, they do not, and the antennae may be shortened or missing. The males may be winged or wingless.
The Sternorrhyncha suborder of the Hemiptera contains the aphids, whiteflies, and scale insects, groups which were traditionally included in the now-obsolete order "Homoptera". "Sternorrhyncha" refers to the rearward position of the mouthparts relative to the head. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders (phytophagous), and many are major crop and ornamental pests.
Many exhibit modified morphology and/or life cycles, including phenomena such as flightless morphs, parthenogenesis, sexual dimorphism, and eusociality.
Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic
uncertainties.
Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes.
Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.
Scale insects appeared in the Triassic, before their modern food plants, the angiosperms, had evolved; early forms probably fed on gymnosperms. They became widespread and common in the Cretaceous, and are well represented in the fossil record, usually preserved in amber where they are sometimes associated with ants.
Their closest relatives are the jumping plant lice, whiteflies, phylloxera bugs and aphids.
The majority of female scale insects remain in one place as adults, with newly hatched nymphs, known as "crawlers", being the only mobile life stage, apart from the short-lived males. The reproductive strategies of many species include at least some amount of asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis.
Some scale insects are serious commercial pests, notably the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) on Citrus fruit trees; they are difficult to control as the scale and waxy covering protect them effectively from contact insecticides.
Some species are used for biological control of pest plants such as the prickly pear, Opuntia. Others produce commercially valuable substances including carmine and kermes dyes, and shellac lacquer. The two red colour-names crimson and scarlet both derive from the names of Kermes products in other languages.
Scale insects vary dramatically in appearance, from very small organisms (1–2 mm) that grow beneath wax covers (some shaped like oysters, others like mussel shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to animals covered with mealy wax.
Adult females are almost always immobile (apart from mealybugs) and permanently attached to the plant on which they are feeding. They secrete a waxy coating for defence, making them resemble reptilian or fish scales, and giving them their common name.
The key character that sets apart the Coccomorpha from all other Hemiptera is the single segmented tarsus on the legs with only one claw at the tip.
The group is extremely sexually dimorphic; female scale insects, unusually for Hemiptera, retain the immature external morphology even when sexually mature, a condition known as neoteny.
Adult females are pear-shaped, elliptical or circular, with no wings, and usually no constriction separating the head from the body.
Segmentation of the body is indistinct, but may be indicated by the presence of marginal bristles. Legs are absent in the females of some families, and when present vary from single segment stubs to five-segmented limbs.
Female scale insects have no compound eyes, but ocelli (simple eyes) are sometimes present in Margarodidae, Ortheziidae and Phenacoleachiidae. The family Beesoniidae lacks antennae, but other families possess antennae with from one to thirteen segments. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking.
Adult males in contrast have the typical head, thorax and abdomen of other insect groups, and are so different from females that pairing them as a species is challenging.
They are usually slender insects resembling aphids or small flies. They have antennae with nine or ten segments, compound eyes (Margarodidae and Ortheziidae) or simple eyes (most other families), and legs with five segments. Most species have wings, and in some, alternate generations may be winged or wingless. Adult males do not feed, and die within two or three days of emergence.
In species with winged males, generally only the forewings are fully functional. This is unusual among insects; it most closely resembles the situation in the true flies, the Diptera.
However, the Diptera and Hemiptera are not closely related, and do not closely resemble each other in morphology; for example, the tail filaments of the Coccomorpha do not resemble anything in the morphology of flies.
The hind (metathoracic) wings are reduced, commonly to the point that they can easily be overlooked. In some species the hind wings have hamuli, hooklets, that couple the hind wings to the main wings, as in the Hymenoptera.
The vestigial wings are often reduced to pseudo-halteres, club-like appendages, but these are not homologous with the control organs of Diptera, and it is not clear whether they have any substantial control function.
Hermaphroditism is very rare in insects, but several species of Icerya exhibit an unusual form. The adult possesses an ovotestis, consisting of both female and male reproductive tissue, and sperm is transmitted to the young for their future use. The fact that a new population can be founded by a single individual may have contributed to the success of the cottony cushion scale which has spread around the world.
Female scale insects in more advanced families develop from the egg through a first instar (crawler) stage and a second instar stage before becoming adult.
In more primitive families there is an additional instar stage. Males pass through a first and second instar stage, a pre-pupal and a pupal stage before adulthood (actually a pseudopupa, as only holometabolous insects have a true pupa).
The first instars of most species of scale insects emerge from the egg with functional legs, and are informally called "crawlers". They immediately crawl around in search of a suitable spot to settle down and feed. In some species they delay settling down either until they are starving, or until they have been blown away by wind onto what presumably is another plant, where they may establish a new colony.
There are many variations on such themes, such as scale insects that are associated with species of ants that act as herders and carry the young ones to protected sites to feed. In either case, many such species of crawlers, when they moult, lose the use of their legs if they are female, and stay put for life.
Only the males retain legs, and in some species wings, and use them in seeking females. To do this they usually walk, as their ability to fly is limited, but they may get carried to new locations by the wind.
Scale insects are an ancient group, having originated in the Cretaceous, the period in which angiosperms came to dominance among plants, with only a few groups species found on gymnosperms.
They feed on a wide variety of plants but are unable to survive long away from their hosts. While some specialise on a single plant species (monophagous), and some on a single genus or plant family (oligophagous), others are less specialised and feed on several plant groups (polyphagous).
Most scale insects are herbivores, feeding on phloem sap drawn directly from the plant's vascular system, but a few species feed on fungal mats and fungi, such as some species in the genus Newsteadia in the family Ortheziidae.
Plant sap provides a liquid diet which is rich in sugar and non-essential amino acids. In order to make up for the shortage of essential amino acids, they depend on endosymbiotic proteobacteria.
Scale insects secrete a large quantity of sticky viscid fluid known as "honeydew". This includes sugars, amino acids and minerals, and is attractive to ants as well as acting as a substrate on which sooty mould can grow. The mould can reduce photosynthesis by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants.
The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases.
Scale insect in the genus Cryptostigma live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming a three-way symbiosis. Some ants and scale insects have a mutualistic relationship; the ants feed on the honeydew and in return protect the scales.
Scale insects have various natural enemies, and research in this field is largely directed at the species that are crop pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can attack suitable scales and completely overgrow them.
An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them. The identity of the host is not always apparent as many fungi are host-specific, and may destroy all the scales of one species present on a leaf while not affecting another species.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Infraorder: Coccomorpha
Heslop-Harrison, 1952
Superfamily: Coccoidea
Handlirsch, 1903
Family: Coccidae
They are commonly known as soft scales, wax scales or tortoise scales. The females are flat with elongated oval bodies and a smooth integument which may be covered with wax.
In some genera they possess legs but in others, they do not, and the antennae may be shortened or missing. The males may be winged or wingless.
The Sternorrhyncha suborder of the Hemiptera contains the aphids, whiteflies, and scale insects, groups which were traditionally included in the now-obsolete order "Homoptera". "Sternorrhyncha" refers to the rearward position of the mouthparts relative to the head. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders (phytophagous), and many are major crop and ornamental pests.
Many exhibit modified morphology and/or life cycles, including phenomena such as flightless morphs, parthenogenesis, sexual dimorphism, and eusociality.
Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic
uncertainties.
Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes.
Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.
Scale insects appeared in the Triassic, before their modern food plants, the angiosperms, had evolved; early forms probably fed on gymnosperms. They became widespread and common in the Cretaceous, and are well represented in the fossil record, usually preserved in amber where they are sometimes associated with ants.
Their closest relatives are the jumping plant lice, whiteflies, phylloxera bugs and aphids.
The majority of female scale insects remain in one place as adults, with newly hatched nymphs, known as "crawlers", being the only mobile life stage, apart from the short-lived males. The reproductive strategies of many species include at least some amount of asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis.
Some scale insects are serious commercial pests, notably the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) on Citrus fruit trees; they are difficult to control as the scale and waxy covering protect them effectively from contact insecticides.
Some species are used for biological control of pest plants such as the prickly pear, Opuntia. Others produce commercially valuable substances including carmine and kermes dyes, and shellac lacquer. The two red colour-names crimson and scarlet both derive from the names of Kermes products in other languages.
Scale insects vary dramatically in appearance, from very small organisms (1–2 mm) that grow beneath wax covers (some shaped like oysters, others like mussel shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to animals covered with mealy wax.
Adult females are almost always immobile (apart from mealybugs) and permanently attached to the plant on which they are feeding. They secrete a waxy coating for defence, making them resemble reptilian or fish scales, and giving them their common name.
The key character that sets apart the Coccomorpha from all other Hemiptera is the single segmented tarsus on the legs with only one claw at the tip.
The group is extremely sexually dimorphic; female scale insects, unusually for Hemiptera, retain the immature external morphology even when sexually mature, a condition known as neoteny.
Adult females are pear-shaped, elliptical or circular, with no wings, and usually no constriction separating the head from the body.
Segmentation of the body is indistinct, but may be indicated by the presence of marginal bristles. Legs are absent in the females of some families, and when present vary from single segment stubs to five-segmented limbs.
Female scale insects have no compound eyes, but ocelli (simple eyes) are sometimes present in Margarodidae, Ortheziidae and Phenacoleachiidae. The family Beesoniidae lacks antennae, but other families possess antennae with from one to thirteen segments. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking.
Adult males in contrast have the typical head, thorax and abdomen of other insect groups, and are so different from females that pairing them as a species is challenging.
They are usually slender insects resembling aphids or small flies. They have antennae with nine or ten segments, compound eyes (Margarodidae and Ortheziidae) or simple eyes (most other families), and legs with five segments. Most species have wings, and in some, alternate generations may be winged or wingless. Adult males do not feed, and die within two or three days of emergence.
In species with winged males, generally only the forewings are fully functional. This is unusual among insects; it most closely resembles the situation in the true flies, the Diptera.
However, the Diptera and Hemiptera are not closely related, and do not closely resemble each other in morphology; for example, the tail filaments of the Coccomorpha do not resemble anything in the morphology of flies.
The hind (metathoracic) wings are reduced, commonly to the point that they can easily be overlooked. In some species the hind wings have hamuli, hooklets, that couple the hind wings to the main wings, as in the Hymenoptera.
The vestigial wings are often reduced to pseudo-halteres, club-like appendages, but these are not homologous with the control organs of Diptera, and it is not clear whether they have any substantial control function.
Hermaphroditism is very rare in insects, but several species of Icerya exhibit an unusual form. The adult possesses an ovotestis, consisting of both female and male reproductive tissue, and sperm is transmitted to the young for their future use. The fact that a new population can be founded by a single individual may have contributed to the success of the cottony cushion scale which has spread around the world.
Female scale insects in more advanced families develop from the egg through a first instar (crawler) stage and a second instar stage before becoming adult.
In more primitive families there is an additional instar stage. Males pass through a first and second instar stage, a pre-pupal and a pupal stage before adulthood (actually a pseudopupa, as only holometabolous insects have a true pupa).
The first instars of most species of scale insects emerge from the egg with functional legs, and are informally called "crawlers". They immediately crawl around in search of a suitable spot to settle down and feed. In some species they delay settling down either until they are starving, or until they have been blown away by wind onto what presumably is another plant, where they may establish a new colony.
There are many variations on such themes, such as scale insects that are associated with species of ants that act as herders and carry the young ones to protected sites to feed. In either case, many such species of crawlers, when they moult, lose the use of their legs if they are female, and stay put for life.
Only the males retain legs, and in some species wings, and use them in seeking females. To do this they usually walk, as their ability to fly is limited, but they may get carried to new locations by the wind.
Scale insects are an ancient group, having originated in the Cretaceous, the period in which angiosperms came to dominance among plants, with only a few groups species found on gymnosperms.
They feed on a wide variety of plants but are unable to survive long away from their hosts. While some specialise on a single plant species (monophagous), and some on a single genus or plant family (oligophagous), others are less specialised and feed on several plant groups (polyphagous).
Most scale insects are herbivores, feeding on phloem sap drawn directly from the plant's vascular system, but a few species feed on fungal mats and fungi, such as some species in the genus Newsteadia in the family Ortheziidae.
Plant sap provides a liquid diet which is rich in sugar and non-essential amino acids. In order to make up for the shortage of essential amino acids, they depend on endosymbiotic proteobacteria.
Scale insects secrete a large quantity of sticky viscid fluid known as "honeydew". This includes sugars, amino acids and minerals, and is attractive to ants as well as acting as a substrate on which sooty mould can grow. The mould can reduce photosynthesis by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants.
The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases.
Scale insect in the genus Cryptostigma live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming a three-way symbiosis. Some ants and scale insects have a mutualistic relationship; the ants feed on the honeydew and in return protect the scales.
Scale insects have various natural enemies, and research in this field is largely directed at the species that are crop pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can attack suitable scales and completely overgrow them.
An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them. The identity of the host is not always apparent as many fungi are host-specific, and may destroy all the scales of one species present on a leaf while not affecting another species.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Infraorder: Coccomorpha
Heslop-Harrison, 1952
Superfamily: Coccoidea
Handlirsch, 1903
Family: Coccidae
Pulchriphyllium bioculatum
Leaf insect
Leaf insect
Pulchriphyllium bioculatum, or Gray's leaf insect, is a leaf insect of the family Phylliidae native to tropical Asia as well as Madagascar, Mauritius and the Seychelles.
It was first described by George Robert Gray in 1832, which was his first phasmid he discovered.
Leaf insects have extremely flattened, irregularly shaped bodies, wings, and legs. They are usually about 5–10 cm long (2–4 in long). They are called leaf insects because their large, leathery forewings have veins that look similar to the veins on the particular type of leaves they inhabit. Its scientific name bioculatum means "two-eyed" and refers to the two dots located on the abdomen just in this species.
The insect has green, broad body and legs and frequently has spots. Both females and males occur in shades of green, yellow, and orange. Java leaf insects would be greenish or brownish as adults.
Males range from 2.6 to 3.7 inches (66 to 94 mm). The organism's fore wings and camouflage are used for defense.
Females are heavy-bodied and flightless, and each lays about 500 eggs in a lifetime. The abdomen is narrower at the base, and the femur of the fore legs are dilated.
The antennae of the females are very short, while those of the male are longer. Adult females are 1.8–2.7 inches (46–69 mm) in length. The species also has hind wings which are used for flying by males, but are unused by females.
Young Pulchriphyllium bioculatum are about 2 cm (0.79 in) long, dark red in colour and have reflex immobility. The species molts 5–6 times in a lifetime.
They are slow-moving herbivores and rely on their camouflage and fore wings for defense from predators including birds, amphibians and reptiles. The females live from 4 to 7 months and males from 3 weeks to 1 month.
These leaf insects are found mainly in tropical areas and rainforests where adequate quantities of vegetation are available for consumption.
It is widespread in Southeast Asia, in Borneo, China, India, Sri Lanka, Java, Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra. It is also found in Madagascar, Mauritius, and the Seychelles.
The preferred temperature for this species is 24–28 °C (75–82 °F), which at night may slightly decrease by 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F). Temperature does not strongly affect the species but will slow development. It is important that the temperature is not reduced below 22 °C (72 °F). Low humidity can cause stress and death.
As a herbivore Pulchriphyllium bioculatum mainly eats mango, guava, Nephelium lappaceum (Rambutan)
and in captivity some accept Quercus (oak) and Rubus (dewberry, raspberry and blackberry) species.
A study was done in Sri Lanka, based on the leaf insect's diet. The specimens mainly fed on guava. Accordingly, the local name for the species in Sri Lanka is pera kolaya (guava leaf). In many places they are colloquially referred to on the basis of what they eat.
The females lay eggs in months. Incubation takes place from 5–7 months at 25 °C (77 °F). Eggs are beige-brown and about 6–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in).
However, many times the eggs laid are not fertilized due to parthenogenesis. This is a form of asexual reproduction found in females, where growth and development of embryos occurs without fertilization by a male.
Eggs are oval or barrel-shaped, like seeds. Different types of oviposition occur in leaf insects. The eggs of this species are catapulted by a backward movement of the abdomen. In a study the ratio of the distance the egg was thrown and the body length of the insect was compared with some other species, which was 24-36. If the eggs are fertilized, then it takes 3–4 months for incubation, otherwise it takes 6 months for unfertilized eggs. Unfertilized eggs hatch out with females only, while fertilized ones may be either male or female. The female lays about 100 eggs at intervals of a few days. The larvae are red at hatching but green within three to seven days. These hatch from eggs laid at a rate of three per day per female.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Phylliidae
Genus: Pulchriphyllium
Species: P. bioculatum
Binomial name Pulchriphyllium bioculatum
(G. R. Gray, 1832)
It was first described by George Robert Gray in 1832, which was his first phasmid he discovered.
Leaf insects have extremely flattened, irregularly shaped bodies, wings, and legs. They are usually about 5–10 cm long (2–4 in long). They are called leaf insects because their large, leathery forewings have veins that look similar to the veins on the particular type of leaves they inhabit. Its scientific name bioculatum means "two-eyed" and refers to the two dots located on the abdomen just in this species.
The insect has green, broad body and legs and frequently has spots. Both females and males occur in shades of green, yellow, and orange. Java leaf insects would be greenish or brownish as adults.
Males range from 2.6 to 3.7 inches (66 to 94 mm). The organism's fore wings and camouflage are used for defense.
Females are heavy-bodied and flightless, and each lays about 500 eggs in a lifetime. The abdomen is narrower at the base, and the femur of the fore legs are dilated.
The antennae of the females are very short, while those of the male are longer. Adult females are 1.8–2.7 inches (46–69 mm) in length. The species also has hind wings which are used for flying by males, but are unused by females.
Young Pulchriphyllium bioculatum are about 2 cm (0.79 in) long, dark red in colour and have reflex immobility. The species molts 5–6 times in a lifetime.
They are slow-moving herbivores and rely on their camouflage and fore wings for defense from predators including birds, amphibians and reptiles. The females live from 4 to 7 months and males from 3 weeks to 1 month.
These leaf insects are found mainly in tropical areas and rainforests where adequate quantities of vegetation are available for consumption.
It is widespread in Southeast Asia, in Borneo, China, India, Sri Lanka, Java, Malaysia, Singapore, and Sumatra. It is also found in Madagascar, Mauritius, and the Seychelles.
The preferred temperature for this species is 24–28 °C (75–82 °F), which at night may slightly decrease by 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F). Temperature does not strongly affect the species but will slow development. It is important that the temperature is not reduced below 22 °C (72 °F). Low humidity can cause stress and death.
As a herbivore Pulchriphyllium bioculatum mainly eats mango, guava, Nephelium lappaceum (Rambutan)
and in captivity some accept Quercus (oak) and Rubus (dewberry, raspberry and blackberry) species.
A study was done in Sri Lanka, based on the leaf insect's diet. The specimens mainly fed on guava. Accordingly, the local name for the species in Sri Lanka is pera kolaya (guava leaf). In many places they are colloquially referred to on the basis of what they eat.
The females lay eggs in months. Incubation takes place from 5–7 months at 25 °C (77 °F). Eggs are beige-brown and about 6–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in).
However, many times the eggs laid are not fertilized due to parthenogenesis. This is a form of asexual reproduction found in females, where growth and development of embryos occurs without fertilization by a male.
Eggs are oval or barrel-shaped, like seeds. Different types of oviposition occur in leaf insects. The eggs of this species are catapulted by a backward movement of the abdomen. In a study the ratio of the distance the egg was thrown and the body length of the insect was compared with some other species, which was 24-36. If the eggs are fertilized, then it takes 3–4 months for incubation, otherwise it takes 6 months for unfertilized eggs. Unfertilized eggs hatch out with females only, while fertilized ones may be either male or female. The female lays about 100 eggs at intervals of a few days. The larvae are red at hatching but green within three to seven days. These hatch from eggs laid at a rate of three per day per female.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Phylliidae
Genus: Pulchriphyllium
Species: P. bioculatum
Binomial name Pulchriphyllium bioculatum
(G. R. Gray, 1832)
Polyrhacis illaudata
Polyrhachis is a genus of formicine ants found in the Old World with over 600 species. The genus is yet to be comprehensively resolved and contains many varied species including nest-weavers (e.g. Polyrhachis dives), swimming workers (e.g. Polyrhachis sokolova), soil (e.g. Polyrhachis proxima) and tree-dwellers (e.g. Polyrhachis bicolor).
Workers range in size approx 5-10mm in length. Eyes developed, no ocelli. Antennae have 12-segments. Antennal insertions situated far from posterior margin of clypeus. Mesosoma of most species have spines on one or more of its pronotal, mesonotal or propodeal components. Petiole armed with spines or teeth. First gastral tergite well developed, longer in dorsal view than exposed parts of the following terga together. Opening at gastral apex for release of venom lacking a radial fringe of hairs.
Polyrhachis species include an array of nesting types ranging from terrestrial, soil based nests to arboreal nests. As a result, the nest architectures also vary with some species displaying a high level of complexity to nest building, utilising larval silk to weave nest materials together. Such nest weaving is more commonly associated (and indeed more complex) in ants of the genus Oecophylla.
Polyrhachis do not have a stinger but an acidipore that can spray formic acid. When attacking, this is often sprayed in combination with biting thus making the acid more effective against the subject of the attack.
Polyrhachis that do not possess a metapleural gland seem to utilise the antibiotic properties of their formic acid and when it cannot be used, ants are more likely to succumb to parasite infection Some species are social parasites; Polyrachis lemalidens is a good example.
They live in the Korean Peninsula, China and other parts of northeastern Asia. Their nuptial flight occurs during late September to late November depending on the climate.
After flight queen dealates search for host colonies. Usually Camponotus japonicus is the host but especially in Korea, their main host is Camponotus atrox. Korean antkeepers say that they even take on to Formica japonica and Camponotus quadrinotatus.
Once they find a host colony, they attack small workers hanging out and 'copying' their pheromones. After doing that multiple times to multiple ants, they sneak into the nest and keep 'copying.'
Then whether they hibernate or not, they eventually go to the Host Queen's chamber. Then they become tiny vampires, literally. They take onto the queen, bites its neck subduing it, sucks blood, 'Copy' pheromone. And eventually and literally cuts the neck of the host queen. This process usually lasts for 2–4 days but can last over 2 weeks. After that is pretty much same to other social parasites.
Polyrhachis illaudata is a species of large ant found in Sri Lanka, India extending through Southeast Asia to the Philippines. The colonies have a single queen and nest within wood.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus: Polyrhachis
Species: P. illaudata
Binomial name Polyrhachis illaudata
Walker, 1859
Workers range in size approx 5-10mm in length. Eyes developed, no ocelli. Antennae have 12-segments. Antennal insertions situated far from posterior margin of clypeus. Mesosoma of most species have spines on one or more of its pronotal, mesonotal or propodeal components. Petiole armed with spines or teeth. First gastral tergite well developed, longer in dorsal view than exposed parts of the following terga together. Opening at gastral apex for release of venom lacking a radial fringe of hairs.
Polyrhachis species include an array of nesting types ranging from terrestrial, soil based nests to arboreal nests. As a result, the nest architectures also vary with some species displaying a high level of complexity to nest building, utilising larval silk to weave nest materials together. Such nest weaving is more commonly associated (and indeed more complex) in ants of the genus Oecophylla.
Polyrhachis do not have a stinger but an acidipore that can spray formic acid. When attacking, this is often sprayed in combination with biting thus making the acid more effective against the subject of the attack.
Polyrhachis that do not possess a metapleural gland seem to utilise the antibiotic properties of their formic acid and when it cannot be used, ants are more likely to succumb to parasite infection Some species are social parasites; Polyrachis lemalidens is a good example.
They live in the Korean Peninsula, China and other parts of northeastern Asia. Their nuptial flight occurs during late September to late November depending on the climate.
After flight queen dealates search for host colonies. Usually Camponotus japonicus is the host but especially in Korea, their main host is Camponotus atrox. Korean antkeepers say that they even take on to Formica japonica and Camponotus quadrinotatus.
Once they find a host colony, they attack small workers hanging out and 'copying' their pheromones. After doing that multiple times to multiple ants, they sneak into the nest and keep 'copying.'
Then whether they hibernate or not, they eventually go to the Host Queen's chamber. Then they become tiny vampires, literally. They take onto the queen, bites its neck subduing it, sucks blood, 'Copy' pheromone. And eventually and literally cuts the neck of the host queen. This process usually lasts for 2–4 days but can last over 2 weeks. After that is pretty much same to other social parasites.
Polyrhachis illaudata is a species of large ant found in Sri Lanka, India extending through Southeast Asia to the Philippines. The colonies have a single queen and nest within wood.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus: Polyrhachis
Species: P. illaudata
Binomial name Polyrhachis illaudata
Walker, 1859
Scolypopa australis
Passionvine hopper nymph
Passionvine hopper nymph
Scolypopa australis, commonly known as the passionvine hopper, is a species of insect in the Ricaniidae family of planthoppers (Fulgoroidea) that is native to Australia and has been introduced to New Zealand.
Despite its name, they are found not only on passion vines, but on many plant species, including kiwifruit and the lantana.
Brown with partly transparent wings, they are 5–6 mm long as adults and 5 mm as nymphs. As an adult they look somewhat like a moth to the untrained eye, and walk "like a ballerina". The nymphs are wingless and are informally known as fluffy bums.
When sufficiently aroused they will hop off their plant "with a 'snap'". Like all planthoppers they suck plant sap. This leaves a honeydew secretion which bees gather. They are also known to cause honey poisoning.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Superfamily: Fulgoroidea
Family: Ricaniidae
Genus: Scolypopa
Species: S. australis
Binomial name Scolypopa australis
(Walker, 1851)
Despite its name, they are found not only on passion vines, but on many plant species, including kiwifruit and the lantana.
Brown with partly transparent wings, they are 5–6 mm long as adults and 5 mm as nymphs. As an adult they look somewhat like a moth to the untrained eye, and walk "like a ballerina". The nymphs are wingless and are informally known as fluffy bums.
When sufficiently aroused they will hop off their plant "with a 'snap'". Like all planthoppers they suck plant sap. This leaves a honeydew secretion which bees gather. They are also known to cause honey poisoning.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Superfamily: Fulgoroidea
Family: Ricaniidae
Genus: Scolypopa
Species: S. australis
Binomial name Scolypopa australis
(Walker, 1851)
Polydictya basalis
Planthopper
Planthopper
The family Fulgoridae is a large group of hemipteran insects, especially abundant and diverse in the tropics, containing over 125 genera worldwide.
They are mostly of moderate to large size, many with a superficial resemblance to Lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. Various genera and species (especially the genera Fulgora and Pyrops) are sometimes referred to as lanternflies or lanthorn flies, though they do not emit light.
The head of some species is produced into a hollow process (structure), resembling a snout, which is sometimes inflated and nearly as large as the body of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Maria Sibylla Merian, that this process, the so-called lantern, was luminous at night in the living insect.
Carl Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and coined a number of specific names, such
as laternaria, phosphorea and candelaria to illustrate the supposed fact, and thus propagated the myth.
Metcalf in 1938, as amended in 1947, recognized five subfamilies (Amyclinae, Aphaeninae, Fulgorinae, Phenacinae, and Poiocerinae) and twelve tribes in the Fulgoridae. By 1963 Lallemand had divided the Fulgoridae into eight subfamilies (Amyclinae, Aphaeninae, Enchophorinae, Fulgorinae, Phenacinae, Poiocerinae, Xosopharinae and Zanninae) and eleven tribes. This classification was generally accepted. However, in 2008 Julie Urban's molecular analysis in her dissertation showed that a significant revamping of the Fulgoridae subfamilies and tribes would be necessary, as the morphological analysis by itself did not take into account the complexity of the Fulgoridae evolution. Her work was recapitulated in 2009 with Jason Cryan. The Zanninae may not even be in the Fulgoridae.
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers.
However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Planthoppers are laterally flattened and hold their broad wings vertically, in a tent-like fashion, concealing the sides of the body and part of the legs. Nymphs of many fulgoroids produce wax from special glands on the abdominal terga and other parts of the body. These are hydrophobic and help conceal the insects. Adult females of many families also produce wax which may be used to protect eggs.
Fulgoroid nymphs also possess a biological gear mechanism at the base of the hind legs, which keeps the legs in synchrony when the insects jump. The gears, not present in the adults, were known for decades before the recent description of their function.
Planthoppers are often vectors for plant diseases, especially phytoplasmas which live in the phloem of plants and can be transmitted by planthoppers when feeding.
A number of extinct members of Fulgoroidea are known from the fossil record, such as the Lutetian-age Emiliana from the Green River Formation (Eocene) in Colorado.
Both planthopper adults and nymphs feed by sucking sap from plants; in so doing, the nymphs produce copious quantities of honeydew, on which sooty mould often grows. One species considered to be a pest is Haplaxius crudus, which is a vector for lethal yellowing, a palm disease that nearly killed off the Jamaican Tall coconut variety.
As mentioned under Auchenorrhyncha, some authors use the name Archaeorrhyncha as a replacement for the Fulgoromorpha.
Polydictya is a genus of planthoppers in the sub-family Poiocerinae Haupt, 1929. Species are distributed from India, through Indo-China, to Malesia and Singapore
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Fulgoridae
Tribe: Poiocerini
Genus: Polydictya
Guérin-Méneville, 1844
Species: Polydictya basalis
(Hope 1843)
They are mostly of moderate to large size, many with a superficial resemblance to Lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. Various genera and species (especially the genera Fulgora and Pyrops) are sometimes referred to as lanternflies or lanthorn flies, though they do not emit light.
The head of some species is produced into a hollow process (structure), resembling a snout, which is sometimes inflated and nearly as large as the body of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Maria Sibylla Merian, that this process, the so-called lantern, was luminous at night in the living insect.
Carl Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and coined a number of specific names, such
as laternaria, phosphorea and candelaria to illustrate the supposed fact, and thus propagated the myth.
Metcalf in 1938, as amended in 1947, recognized five subfamilies (Amyclinae, Aphaeninae, Fulgorinae, Phenacinae, and Poiocerinae) and twelve tribes in the Fulgoridae. By 1963 Lallemand had divided the Fulgoridae into eight subfamilies (Amyclinae, Aphaeninae, Enchophorinae, Fulgorinae, Phenacinae, Poiocerinae, Xosopharinae and Zanninae) and eleven tribes. This classification was generally accepted. However, in 2008 Julie Urban's molecular analysis in her dissertation showed that a significant revamping of the Fulgoridae subfamilies and tribes would be necessary, as the morphological analysis by itself did not take into account the complexity of the Fulgoridae evolution. Her work was recapitulated in 2009 with Jason Cryan. The Zanninae may not even be in the Fulgoridae.
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers.
However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Planthoppers are laterally flattened and hold their broad wings vertically, in a tent-like fashion, concealing the sides of the body and part of the legs. Nymphs of many fulgoroids produce wax from special glands on the abdominal terga and other parts of the body. These are hydrophobic and help conceal the insects. Adult females of many families also produce wax which may be used to protect eggs.
Fulgoroid nymphs also possess a biological gear mechanism at the base of the hind legs, which keeps the legs in synchrony when the insects jump. The gears, not present in the adults, were known for decades before the recent description of their function.
Planthoppers are often vectors for plant diseases, especially phytoplasmas which live in the phloem of plants and can be transmitted by planthoppers when feeding.
A number of extinct members of Fulgoroidea are known from the fossil record, such as the Lutetian-age Emiliana from the Green River Formation (Eocene) in Colorado.
Both planthopper adults and nymphs feed by sucking sap from plants; in so doing, the nymphs produce copious quantities of honeydew, on which sooty mould often grows. One species considered to be a pest is Haplaxius crudus, which is a vector for lethal yellowing, a palm disease that nearly killed off the Jamaican Tall coconut variety.
As mentioned under Auchenorrhyncha, some authors use the name Archaeorrhyncha as a replacement for the Fulgoromorpha.
Polydictya is a genus of planthoppers in the sub-family Poiocerinae Haupt, 1929. Species are distributed from India, through Indo-China, to Malesia and Singapore
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Fulgoridae
Tribe: Poiocerini
Genus: Polydictya
Guérin-Méneville, 1844
Species: Polydictya basalis
(Hope 1843)
Chrysoperla carnea
Common green lacewing
Common green lacewing
Chrysopa is a genus of green lacewings in the neuropteran family Chrysopidae.
Members of this genus and the genus Chrysoperla are common in much of North America, Europe and Asia. They share similar characteristics and some species have been moved from one genus to the other and back again. Their larvae are predatory and feed on aphids and members of this genus have been used in biological pest control.
Chrysoperla carnea, one of the species of common green lacewing is an insect in the Chrysopidae family. Although the adults feed on nectar, pollen and aphid honeydew, the larvae are active predators and feed on aphids and other small insects. It has been used in the biological control of insect pests on crops.
Chrysoperla carnea was originally considered to be a single species with a holarctic distribution but it has now been shown to be a complex of many cryptic, sibling subspecies. These are indistinguishable from each other morphologically but can be recognised by variations in the vibrational songs the insects use to communicate with each other, which they especially do during courtship.
The green lacewing eggs are oval and secured to the plant by long slender stalks. They are pale green when first laid but become gray later. The larvae are about one millimetre long when they first hatch. They are brown and resemble small alligators, crawling actively around in search of prey.
They have a pair of pincer-like mandibles on their head with which they grasp their prey, sometimes lifting the victim off the leaf surface to prevent its escape. The larvae inject enzymes into the bodies of their victims which digest the internal organs, after which they suck out the liquidated body fluids. The larvae grow to about eight millimetres long before they spin circular cocoons and pupate.
Adult green lacewings are a pale green colour with long, threadlike antennae and glossy, golden, compound eyes. They have a delicate appearance and are from twelve to twenty millimetres long with large, membranous, pale green wings which they fold tent-wise above their abdomens. They are weak fliers and have a fluttery form of flight. They are often seen during the evenings and at night when they are attracted by lights. The high green sensitivity of the superposition eyes allows the green lacewings to recognize fresh green leaves that they use to find honey dew produced by aphids, a site for egglaying and a resting place.
The green lacewing adults overwinter buried in leaf litter at the edge of fields or other rough places, emerging when the weather warms up in spring. Each female lacewing lays several hundred small eggs at the rate of two to five per day, choosing concealed spots underneath leaves or on shoots near potential prey. The eggs are normally laid during the hours of darkness.
The larvae hatch in three to six days, eat voraciously and moult three times as they grow. They feed not only on aphids but also on many other types of insects and even prey on larger creatures such as caterpillars. They can consume large numbers of prey and completely destroy aphid colonies. When food is scarce they turn cannibal and eat each other.
After two to three weeks, the mature larvae secrete silk and build round, parchment-like cocoons in concealed positions on plants. From these, the adults emerge ten to fourteen days later. The length of the life cycle (under 4 weeks in summer conditions) is greatly influenced by the temperature and there may be several generations each year under favourable conditions.
Chrysoperla carnea adults eat pollen and honeydew and are not predatory, but the larvae have been recorded as feeding on seventy different prey species in five insect orders. The prey are mostly from the order Hemiptera and are predominantly aphids on low growing vegetation.
On crops, the larvae have been reported as attacking several species of aphids, red spider mites, thrips, whitefly, the eggs of leafhoppers, leaf miners, psyllids, small moths and caterpillars, beetle larvae and the tobacco budworm. They are considered to be important predators of the long-tailed mealybug under glass.
C. carnea occurs naturally in many growing regions of the northern hemisphere. It is considered an important aphid predator in cotton crops in Russia and Egypt, sugar beet in Germany and vineyards in Europe.
It has been found to be effective at controlling the cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, in cotton crops in Pakistan. The presence of the larvae on the foliage was found to inhibit visitation and oviposition by B. tabaci which suggests the larvae may produce a volatile semiochemical which repels the whitefly.
Although the larvae are effective as biological control agents, in open air environments the adult lacewings tend to disperse widely. They may remain in the original release location if they have sources of nectar, pollen or honeydew to feed on in the general vicinity. Commercial supplies of related species, usually eggs, are available from many outlets inNorth America. However, no true C. carnea occurs in North America.
When attempts were made to introduce the species into India, and New Zealand between the 1920s and 1970s, the lacewings failed to become established, perhaps because of the absence of certain yeast symbionts necessary to their development which were absent from their new environments.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Neuroptera
Family: Chrysopidae
Genus: Chrysoperla
Species: C. carnea
Binomial name Chrysoperla carnea
(Stephens, 1836)
Members of this genus and the genus Chrysoperla are common in much of North America, Europe and Asia. They share similar characteristics and some species have been moved from one genus to the other and back again. Their larvae are predatory and feed on aphids and members of this genus have been used in biological pest control.
Chrysoperla carnea, one of the species of common green lacewing is an insect in the Chrysopidae family. Although the adults feed on nectar, pollen and aphid honeydew, the larvae are active predators and feed on aphids and other small insects. It has been used in the biological control of insect pests on crops.
Chrysoperla carnea was originally considered to be a single species with a holarctic distribution but it has now been shown to be a complex of many cryptic, sibling subspecies. These are indistinguishable from each other morphologically but can be recognised by variations in the vibrational songs the insects use to communicate with each other, which they especially do during courtship.
The green lacewing eggs are oval and secured to the plant by long slender stalks. They are pale green when first laid but become gray later. The larvae are about one millimetre long when they first hatch. They are brown and resemble small alligators, crawling actively around in search of prey.
They have a pair of pincer-like mandibles on their head with which they grasp their prey, sometimes lifting the victim off the leaf surface to prevent its escape. The larvae inject enzymes into the bodies of their victims which digest the internal organs, after which they suck out the liquidated body fluids. The larvae grow to about eight millimetres long before they spin circular cocoons and pupate.
Adult green lacewings are a pale green colour with long, threadlike antennae and glossy, golden, compound eyes. They have a delicate appearance and are from twelve to twenty millimetres long with large, membranous, pale green wings which they fold tent-wise above their abdomens. They are weak fliers and have a fluttery form of flight. They are often seen during the evenings and at night when they are attracted by lights. The high green sensitivity of the superposition eyes allows the green lacewings to recognize fresh green leaves that they use to find honey dew produced by aphids, a site for egglaying and a resting place.
The green lacewing adults overwinter buried in leaf litter at the edge of fields or other rough places, emerging when the weather warms up in spring. Each female lacewing lays several hundred small eggs at the rate of two to five per day, choosing concealed spots underneath leaves or on shoots near potential prey. The eggs are normally laid during the hours of darkness.
The larvae hatch in three to six days, eat voraciously and moult three times as they grow. They feed not only on aphids but also on many other types of insects and even prey on larger creatures such as caterpillars. They can consume large numbers of prey and completely destroy aphid colonies. When food is scarce they turn cannibal and eat each other.
After two to three weeks, the mature larvae secrete silk and build round, parchment-like cocoons in concealed positions on plants. From these, the adults emerge ten to fourteen days later. The length of the life cycle (under 4 weeks in summer conditions) is greatly influenced by the temperature and there may be several generations each year under favourable conditions.
Chrysoperla carnea adults eat pollen and honeydew and are not predatory, but the larvae have been recorded as feeding on seventy different prey species in five insect orders. The prey are mostly from the order Hemiptera and are predominantly aphids on low growing vegetation.
On crops, the larvae have been reported as attacking several species of aphids, red spider mites, thrips, whitefly, the eggs of leafhoppers, leaf miners, psyllids, small moths and caterpillars, beetle larvae and the tobacco budworm. They are considered to be important predators of the long-tailed mealybug under glass.
C. carnea occurs naturally in many growing regions of the northern hemisphere. It is considered an important aphid predator in cotton crops in Russia and Egypt, sugar beet in Germany and vineyards in Europe.
It has been found to be effective at controlling the cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, in cotton crops in Pakistan. The presence of the larvae on the foliage was found to inhibit visitation and oviposition by B. tabaci which suggests the larvae may produce a volatile semiochemical which repels the whitefly.
Although the larvae are effective as biological control agents, in open air environments the adult lacewings tend to disperse widely. They may remain in the original release location if they have sources of nectar, pollen or honeydew to feed on in the general vicinity. Commercial supplies of related species, usually eggs, are available from many outlets inNorth America. However, no true C. carnea occurs in North America.
When attempts were made to introduce the species into India, and New Zealand between the 1920s and 1970s, the lacewings failed to become established, perhaps because of the absence of certain yeast symbionts necessary to their development which were absent from their new environments.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Neuroptera
Family: Chrysopidae
Genus: Chrysoperla
Species: C. carnea
Binomial name Chrysoperla carnea
(Stephens, 1836)
Oxygrylius ruginasus
Oxygrylius ruginasus is a species of rhinoceros beetle in the family Scarabaeidae.
The family Scarabaeidae, as currently defined, consists of over 30,000 species of beetles worldwide; they are often called scarabs or scarab beetles.
The classification of this family has undergone significant change in recent years. Several subfamilies have been elevated to family rank (e.g., Pleocomidae, Glaresidae, Glaphyridae, Ochodaeidae, and Geotrupidae), and some reduced to lower ranks.
Scarabs are stout-bodied beetles, many with bright metallic colours, measuring between 1.5 and 160 mm. They have distinctive, clubbed antennae composed of plates called lamellae that can be compressed into a ball or fanned out like leaves to sense odours.
Many species are fossorial, with legs adapted for digging. In some groups males (and sometimes females) have prominent horns on the head and/or pronotum to fight over mates or resources.
The C-shaped larvae, called grubs, are pale yellow or white. Most adult beetles are nocturnal, although the flower chafers (Cetoniinae) and many leaf chafers (Rutelinae) are active during the day. The grubs mostly live underground or under debris, so are not exposed to sunlight.
Many scarabs are scavengers that recycle dung, carrion, or decaying plant material. Others, such as the Japanese beetle, are plant-eaters.
Some of the well-known beetles from the
Scarabaeidae are Japanese beetles, dung beetles, June beetles, rose chafers (Australian, European, and North American), rhinoceros beetles, Hercules beetles and Goliath beetles.
Several members of this family have structurally coloured shells which act as left-handed circular polarisers; this was the first-discovered example of circular polarization in nature.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Scarabaeiformia
Superfamily: Scarabaeoidea
Family: Scarabaeidae
Genus: Oxygrylius
Species: O. ruginasus
Binomial name Oxygrylius ruginasus
(LeConte, 1856)
The family Scarabaeidae, as currently defined, consists of over 30,000 species of beetles worldwide; they are often called scarabs or scarab beetles.
The classification of this family has undergone significant change in recent years. Several subfamilies have been elevated to family rank (e.g., Pleocomidae, Glaresidae, Glaphyridae, Ochodaeidae, and Geotrupidae), and some reduced to lower ranks.
Scarabs are stout-bodied beetles, many with bright metallic colours, measuring between 1.5 and 160 mm. They have distinctive, clubbed antennae composed of plates called lamellae that can be compressed into a ball or fanned out like leaves to sense odours.
Many species are fossorial, with legs adapted for digging. In some groups males (and sometimes females) have prominent horns on the head and/or pronotum to fight over mates or resources.
The C-shaped larvae, called grubs, are pale yellow or white. Most adult beetles are nocturnal, although the flower chafers (Cetoniinae) and many leaf chafers (Rutelinae) are active during the day. The grubs mostly live underground or under debris, so are not exposed to sunlight.
Many scarabs are scavengers that recycle dung, carrion, or decaying plant material. Others, such as the Japanese beetle, are plant-eaters.
Some of the well-known beetles from the
Scarabaeidae are Japanese beetles, dung beetles, June beetles, rose chafers (Australian, European, and North American), rhinoceros beetles, Hercules beetles and Goliath beetles.
Several members of this family have structurally coloured shells which act as left-handed circular polarisers; this was the first-discovered example of circular polarization in nature.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Scarabaeiformia
Superfamily: Scarabaeoidea
Family: Scarabaeidae
Genus: Oxygrylius
Species: O. ruginasus
Binomial name Oxygrylius ruginasus
(LeConte, 1856)
Phasmatidae (stick insect)
Necroscia affinis
Necroscia affinis
The Phasmatidae are a family of the stick insects (order Phasmatodea) They belong to the superfamily Anareolatae of suborder Verophasmatodea.
Like many of their relatives, the Phasmatidae are capable of regenerating limbs and commonly reproduce by parthenogenesis. Despite their bizarre, even threatening appearance, they are harmless to humans.
The Phasmatidae contain some of the largest insects in existence. The recently discovered Chan's megastick (Phobaeticus chani) of the Clitumninae (sometimes placed in the Phasmatinae) can grow to a total length of over 0.5 m (20 in) it is the longest living insect known.
Following the Phasmid Study Group, nine subfamilies are recognized in the Phasmatidae. Other treatments differ, sometimes recognizing as few as six.
The Lonchodinae were historically often placed in the Diapheromeridae, the other family of the Anareolatae.
The Phasmatinae are often expanded to include the two tribes here separated as the Clitumninae, while the Extatosomatinae may be similarly included in the Tropidoderinae as a tribe.
Necroscia is an Asian genus of stick insects in the family Diapheromeridae and subfamily Necrosciinae. Species have been recorded from South-East Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Infraorder: Anareolatae
Family: Phasmatidae
Roberts, 1944
Family: Diapheromeridae
Subfamily: Necrosciinae
Species : Necroscia affinis
Genus: Necroscia
Serville, 1838
Like many of their relatives, the Phasmatidae are capable of regenerating limbs and commonly reproduce by parthenogenesis. Despite their bizarre, even threatening appearance, they are harmless to humans.
The Phasmatidae contain some of the largest insects in existence. The recently discovered Chan's megastick (Phobaeticus chani) of the Clitumninae (sometimes placed in the Phasmatinae) can grow to a total length of over 0.5 m (20 in) it is the longest living insect known.
Following the Phasmid Study Group, nine subfamilies are recognized in the Phasmatidae. Other treatments differ, sometimes recognizing as few as six.
The Lonchodinae were historically often placed in the Diapheromeridae, the other family of the Anareolatae.
The Phasmatinae are often expanded to include the two tribes here separated as the Clitumninae, while the Extatosomatinae may be similarly included in the Tropidoderinae as a tribe.
Necroscia is an Asian genus of stick insects in the family Diapheromeridae and subfamily Necrosciinae. Species have been recorded from South-East Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Infraorder: Anareolatae
Family: Phasmatidae
Roberts, 1944
Family: Diapheromeridae
Subfamily: Necrosciinae
Species : Necroscia affinis
Genus: Necroscia
Serville, 1838
The Psychidae , bagworm moths
caterpillar larvae
caterpillar larvae
A Breakthrough from Bagworms....
Bagworms are larvae of a kind of Psychidae moth, which are widespread in all zoological environments except for the polar regions and deserts.
Bagworms produce thread composed of silk protein as silkworms and spiders do. Shortly after hatching, bagworms construct cases called “mino” by weaving leaves and twigs together with their silk thread. They stay in and move with these cases until they become adults.
Most bagworms are small, making cases less than 10 mm long. However, there are many large bagworms such as the larvae of Eumeta japonica (case sizes of 30 – 55 mm long) and Eumeta minuscula (case sizes of 20 – 35 mm long), which are widely found in Japan.
Some species of bagworms eat lichen, moss, fungi, and algae, but many large bagworms eat leaves, stems, and tree bark. As they are generally polyphagous, they are often categorized as pests.
The Psychidae (bagworm moths, also simply bagworms or bagmoths) are a family of the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).
The bagworm family is fairly small, with about 1,350 species described. Bagworm species are found globally, with some, such as the snailcase bagworm (Apterona helicoidella), in modern times settling continents where they are not native.
Another common name for the Psychidae is "case moths", but this is just as well used for the case-bearers (Coleophoridae). The names refer to the habits of caterpillars of these two families, which build small protective cases in which they can hide.
The bagworms belong to the superfamily Tineoidea, which is a basal lineage of the Ditrysia (as is Gelechioidea, which includes case-bearers). This means that the bagworms and case-bearers are only as closely related to each other as either is to butterflies (Rhopalocera).
Most bagworms are inoffensive to humans and inconspicuous; some are occasional nuisance pests. However, a few species can become more serious pests, and have caused significant damage e.g. to wattle (Acacia mearnsii) in South Africa and orange (Citrus × sinensis) in Florida. If detected early, picking the cases from the trees while in their pupa stage is an effective way to check an infestation; otherwise, insecticides are used.
One bagworm species, the fangalabola (Deborrea malgassa) of Madagascar, is in some places encouraged to breed on wattle trees, because its pupae are collected as a protein-rich food.
The caterpillar larvae of the Psychidae construct cases out of silk and environmental materials such as sand, soil, lichen, or plant materials. These cases are attached to rocks, trees or fences while resting or during their pupa stage, but are otherwise mobile. The larvae of some species eat lichen, while others prefer green leaves.
In many species, the adult females lack wings and are therefore difficult to identify accurately. Case-bearer cases are usually much smaller, flimsier, and consist mainly of silk, while bagworm "bags" resemble caddisfly cases in their outward appearance – a mass of (mainly) plant detritus spun together with silk on the inside.
Bagworm cases range in size from less than 1 cm to 15 cm among some tropical species. Each species makes a case particular to its species, making the case more useful to identify the species than the creature itself. Cases among the more primitive species are flat. More specialized species exhibit a greater variety of case size, shape, and composition, usually narrowing on both ends. The attachment substance used to affix the bag to host plant, or structure, can be very strong, and in some case require a great deal of force to remove given the relative size and weight of the actual "bag" structure itself. Body markings are rare. Adult females of many bagworm species are larviform, with only vestigial wings, legs, and mouthparts.
In some species, parthenogenesis is known. The adult males of most species are strong fliers with well-developed wings and feathery antennae but survive only long enough to reproduce due to underdeveloped mouthparts that prevent them from feeding. Most male bagworm wings have few of the scales characteristic of most moths, instead having a thin covering of hairs.
In the larval stage, bagworms extend their head and thorax from their mobile case to devour the leaves of host plants, often leading to the death of their hosts. Trees infested with bagworms exhibit increasingly damaged foliage as the infestation increases until the leaves are stripped bare.
Some bagworms are specialized in their host plants (monophagous), while others can feed on a variety of plant species (polyphagous). A few species also consume small arthropods (such as the camphor scale Pseudaonidia duplex, a scale insect). One bagworm species was found to eat an orb-web of Plebs sachalinensis (Araneae, Araneidae) entirely.
Since bagworm cases are composed of silk and the materials from their habitat, they are naturally camouflaged from predators. Predators include birds and other insects. Birds often eat the egg-laden bodies of female bagworms after they have died. Since the eggs are very hard-shelled, they can pass through the bird's digestive system unharmed, promoting the spread of the species over wide areas.
A bagworm begins to build its case as soon as it hatches. Once the case is built, only adult males ever leave the case, never to return, when they take flight to find a mate.
Bagworms add material to the front of the case as they grow, excreting waste materials through the opening in the back of the case. When satiated with leaves, a bagworm caterpillar secures its case and pupates.
The adult female, which is wingless, either emerges from the case long enough for breeding or remains in the case while the male extends his abdomen into the female's case to breed.
Females lay their eggs in their case and die. The female evergreen bagworm (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis) dies without laying eggs, and the larval bagworm offspring emerge from the parent's body.
Some bagworm species are parthenogenetic, meaning their eggs develop without male fertilization. Each bagworm generation lives just long enough as adults to mate and reproduce in their annual cycle.
Life Cycle of a Bagworm..
Bagworm, like all moths, undergoes complete metamorphosis with four stages.
Egg: In late summer and fall, the female lays up to 1,000 eggs in her case. She then leaves her bag and drops to the ground; the eggs overwinter.
Larva: In late spring, larvae hatch and disperse on silken threads. They immediately begin feeding and constructing their own bags. As they grow, the larvae enlarge their bags by adding more foliage. They stay within the safety of their bags, sticking their heads out to feed and carrying the bags from branch to branch. Frass falls out of the bottom end of the cone-shaped bag through an opening.
Pupa: When the larvae reach maturity in late summer and prepare to pupate, they attach their bags to the underside of a branch. The bag is sealed shut, and the larvae turn to head down inside the bag. The pupal stage lasts four weeks.
Adult: In September, adults emerge from their pupal cases. Males leave their bags to fly in search of mates. Females have no wings, legs, or mouthparts, and remain within their bags.
The bagworm's best defense is its camouflage bag, worn throughout its life cycle. The bag allows otherwise vulnerable larvae to move freely from place to place.
Female moths, though confined to their bags, attract mates by releasing strong sex pheromones. Males leave their bags to find partners when they sense the chemical alert from females.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Tineoidea
Family: Psychidae
Boisduval, 1828
Bagworms are larvae of a kind of Psychidae moth, which are widespread in all zoological environments except for the polar regions and deserts.
Bagworms produce thread composed of silk protein as silkworms and spiders do. Shortly after hatching, bagworms construct cases called “mino” by weaving leaves and twigs together with their silk thread. They stay in and move with these cases until they become adults.
Most bagworms are small, making cases less than 10 mm long. However, there are many large bagworms such as the larvae of Eumeta japonica (case sizes of 30 – 55 mm long) and Eumeta minuscula (case sizes of 20 – 35 mm long), which are widely found in Japan.
Some species of bagworms eat lichen, moss, fungi, and algae, but many large bagworms eat leaves, stems, and tree bark. As they are generally polyphagous, they are often categorized as pests.
The Psychidae (bagworm moths, also simply bagworms or bagmoths) are a family of the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).
The bagworm family is fairly small, with about 1,350 species described. Bagworm species are found globally, with some, such as the snailcase bagworm (Apterona helicoidella), in modern times settling continents where they are not native.
Another common name for the Psychidae is "case moths", but this is just as well used for the case-bearers (Coleophoridae). The names refer to the habits of caterpillars of these two families, which build small protective cases in which they can hide.
The bagworms belong to the superfamily Tineoidea, which is a basal lineage of the Ditrysia (as is Gelechioidea, which includes case-bearers). This means that the bagworms and case-bearers are only as closely related to each other as either is to butterflies (Rhopalocera).
Most bagworms are inoffensive to humans and inconspicuous; some are occasional nuisance pests. However, a few species can become more serious pests, and have caused significant damage e.g. to wattle (Acacia mearnsii) in South Africa and orange (Citrus × sinensis) in Florida. If detected early, picking the cases from the trees while in their pupa stage is an effective way to check an infestation; otherwise, insecticides are used.
One bagworm species, the fangalabola (Deborrea malgassa) of Madagascar, is in some places encouraged to breed on wattle trees, because its pupae are collected as a protein-rich food.
The caterpillar larvae of the Psychidae construct cases out of silk and environmental materials such as sand, soil, lichen, or plant materials. These cases are attached to rocks, trees or fences while resting or during their pupa stage, but are otherwise mobile. The larvae of some species eat lichen, while others prefer green leaves.
In many species, the adult females lack wings and are therefore difficult to identify accurately. Case-bearer cases are usually much smaller, flimsier, and consist mainly of silk, while bagworm "bags" resemble caddisfly cases in their outward appearance – a mass of (mainly) plant detritus spun together with silk on the inside.
Bagworm cases range in size from less than 1 cm to 15 cm among some tropical species. Each species makes a case particular to its species, making the case more useful to identify the species than the creature itself. Cases among the more primitive species are flat. More specialized species exhibit a greater variety of case size, shape, and composition, usually narrowing on both ends. The attachment substance used to affix the bag to host plant, or structure, can be very strong, and in some case require a great deal of force to remove given the relative size and weight of the actual "bag" structure itself. Body markings are rare. Adult females of many bagworm species are larviform, with only vestigial wings, legs, and mouthparts.
In some species, parthenogenesis is known. The adult males of most species are strong fliers with well-developed wings and feathery antennae but survive only long enough to reproduce due to underdeveloped mouthparts that prevent them from feeding. Most male bagworm wings have few of the scales characteristic of most moths, instead having a thin covering of hairs.
In the larval stage, bagworms extend their head and thorax from their mobile case to devour the leaves of host plants, often leading to the death of their hosts. Trees infested with bagworms exhibit increasingly damaged foliage as the infestation increases until the leaves are stripped bare.
Some bagworms are specialized in their host plants (monophagous), while others can feed on a variety of plant species (polyphagous). A few species also consume small arthropods (such as the camphor scale Pseudaonidia duplex, a scale insect). One bagworm species was found to eat an orb-web of Plebs sachalinensis (Araneae, Araneidae) entirely.
Since bagworm cases are composed of silk and the materials from their habitat, they are naturally camouflaged from predators. Predators include birds and other insects. Birds often eat the egg-laden bodies of female bagworms after they have died. Since the eggs are very hard-shelled, they can pass through the bird's digestive system unharmed, promoting the spread of the species over wide areas.
A bagworm begins to build its case as soon as it hatches. Once the case is built, only adult males ever leave the case, never to return, when they take flight to find a mate.
Bagworms add material to the front of the case as they grow, excreting waste materials through the opening in the back of the case. When satiated with leaves, a bagworm caterpillar secures its case and pupates.
The adult female, which is wingless, either emerges from the case long enough for breeding or remains in the case while the male extends his abdomen into the female's case to breed.
Females lay their eggs in their case and die. The female evergreen bagworm (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis) dies without laying eggs, and the larval bagworm offspring emerge from the parent's body.
Some bagworm species are parthenogenetic, meaning their eggs develop without male fertilization. Each bagworm generation lives just long enough as adults to mate and reproduce in their annual cycle.
Life Cycle of a Bagworm..
Bagworm, like all moths, undergoes complete metamorphosis with four stages.
Egg: In late summer and fall, the female lays up to 1,000 eggs in her case. She then leaves her bag and drops to the ground; the eggs overwinter.
Larva: In late spring, larvae hatch and disperse on silken threads. They immediately begin feeding and constructing their own bags. As they grow, the larvae enlarge their bags by adding more foliage. They stay within the safety of their bags, sticking their heads out to feed and carrying the bags from branch to branch. Frass falls out of the bottom end of the cone-shaped bag through an opening.
Pupa: When the larvae reach maturity in late summer and prepare to pupate, they attach their bags to the underside of a branch. The bag is sealed shut, and the larvae turn to head down inside the bag. The pupal stage lasts four weeks.
Adult: In September, adults emerge from their pupal cases. Males leave their bags to fly in search of mates. Females have no wings, legs, or mouthparts, and remain within their bags.
The bagworm's best defense is its camouflage bag, worn throughout its life cycle. The bag allows otherwise vulnerable larvae to move freely from place to place.
Female moths, though confined to their bags, attract mates by releasing strong sex pheromones. Males leave their bags to find partners when they sense the chemical alert from females.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Tineoidea
Family: Psychidae
Boisduval, 1828
Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
Commonly known as the 28-spotted potato ladybird or the Hadda beetle
Commonly known as the 28-spotted potato ladybird or the Hadda beetle
Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata is a species of beetle in the family Coccinellidae.
It is commonly known as the 28-spotted potato ladybird or the Hadda beetle. It feeds on the foliage of potatoes and other solanaceous crops.
It was previously called Epilachna vigintioctopunctata and is a cryptic species complex.
It is very often confused with a closely related species,
Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata, which occurs in Russia, China, Japan, and Korea, and is given the same "common name".
This species is native to southeastern Asia, primarily India, but has been accidentally introduced to other parts of the world, including Australia and New Zealand. It has also been recorded from Brazil and
Argentina, beginning in 1996.
This species causes damage to agricultural crops primarily in the family Solanaceae, especially potatoes; other crops include pumpkin, turnips, radishes, beans and spinach.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Genus: Henosepilachna
Species: H. vigintioctopunctata
Binomial name Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
(Fabricius, 1775)
It is commonly known as the 28-spotted potato ladybird or the Hadda beetle. It feeds on the foliage of potatoes and other solanaceous crops.
It was previously called Epilachna vigintioctopunctata and is a cryptic species complex.
It is very often confused with a closely related species,
Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata, which occurs in Russia, China, Japan, and Korea, and is given the same "common name".
This species is native to southeastern Asia, primarily India, but has been accidentally introduced to other parts of the world, including Australia and New Zealand. It has also been recorded from Brazil and
Argentina, beginning in 1996.
This species causes damage to agricultural crops primarily in the family Solanaceae, especially potatoes; other crops include pumpkin, turnips, radishes, beans and spinach.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Genus: Henosepilachna
Species: H. vigintioctopunctata
Binomial name Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
(Fabricius, 1775)
Dichoptera sp
Dichoptera is a genus of plant-hoppers found in tropical Asia. They were formerly placed in the family
Dictyopharidae.
They have large and stout bodies with long membranous forewings. The head is short and may have a long process. There are 11 species in the genus.
Often found on the bark of Ficus trees, they are tended by ants and sometimes parasitized by Dryinidae.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Fulgoridae
Genus: Dichoptera
Spinola, 1839
Dictyopharidae.
They have large and stout bodies with long membranous forewings. The head is short and may have a long process. There are 11 species in the genus.
Often found on the bark of Ficus trees, they are tended by ants and sometimes parasitized by Dryinidae.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Fulgoridae
Genus: Dichoptera
Spinola, 1839
Catharsius molossus
the Molossus beetle 神農蜣螂
the Molossus beetle 神農蜣螂
Catharsius is a genus of dung beetles in the tribe Coprini (subfamily Scarabaeinae) in the scarab family.
It contains about 100 species of intermediate to large size (15–50 millimetres or 0.59–1.97 inches), black or brown, living in the tropical areas of the Old World. Tropical Africa contains about 85 species, with the remaining 15 in tropical Asia. Catharsius are typically short and convex scarabs, with horns on head and forebody of males, sometimes also of females.
They mostly live in grasslands and pastures, occasionally in forests, where they eat large mammals’ dung, using it to make pedotrophic nests in which their offspring develop. A few species shifted from coprophagy to necrophagy, and use small vertebrates carcasses as food for both adults and larvae.
Due to their rather large size and occasional abundance, Catharsius species play important roles in the ecology and soil dynamics of tropical areas. They bury vast amounts of dung into the ground, thus improving the quality and texture of the soils. Also, they contribute to “clean” the surface of the ground, hence their name (from the Greek katharsios “purifier”).
Important species are Catharsius molossus (Linnaeus, 1758), one of the most widespread and abundant coprophagous species in tropical Asian regions.
Catharsius molossus is a species of dung beetle of the family Scarabaeidae. Catharsius molossus can reach a length of about 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.38 in) in the females, about 45 millimetres (1.8 in) in males.
This species is completely black, the body is short and convex, quite hairy on the ventral side and usually with a short conical horn in the centre of the head of the males. Pronotum is densely granulated and elytra are finely striated. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine for detoxification, swelling and constipation.
The Molossus Dung Beetle is widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). An extract of C. molossus is often used in the submerged fermentation of a medicinal fungus called "Ling Zhi" (Ganoderma lucidum) also commonly used in TCM to treat various human diseases like gastritis, hepatitis, chronic bronchitis and immunological disorders.
The extract of ethyl acetate extracts from C. molossus is known to help increase the production of bioactive compounds and polysaccharides (or sugars) in the fungus. Additionally, a polypeptide extract from C. molossus can also be used for treatment of Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or prostate gland enlargement
Anti-diabetes activity of Catharsius molossus glycosaminoglycan was evaluated to reduce glucose, creatinine kinase, triglyceride and free fatty acid levels in db mice.
Interestingly, some nocturnal species of dung beetles that belong to the same family as Catharsius molossus (Scarabaeidae) use the polarized light of the moon to orientate themselves, helping them to move in a straight line.
While studies have only been on the genus Scarabeus, there is no evidence that other nocturnal beetles do not rely on moonlight for navigation too. In light of such news, it is worth considering what effects rapid urbanisation and light pollution can have on the dung beetles. There should also be more research done on dung beetles in Singapore, especially the nocturnal ones like the Molossus Dung Beetle.
Catharsius molossus is commonly known as the Molossus beetle. In Chinese, it is known as 神農蜣螂 (shén nǒng qiāng lǎng). This directly translates to the "God Farmer's Dung beetle", while there is no direct explanation of this name, it could be linked to it's medicinal usage in Traditional Chinese Medicine and how it's tunnelling behaviour aids in soil aeration for farmers.
Catharsius molossus is one of the most widespread and abundant coprophagous species in tropical Asian regions. The Molossus Dung Beetle is found across Southeast Asia in India, southern China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and most recently, again in Singapore.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Subfamily: Scarabaeinae
Tribe: Coprini
Genus: Catharsius
Species: C. molossus
Binomial name Catharsius molossus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
It contains about 100 species of intermediate to large size (15–50 millimetres or 0.59–1.97 inches), black or brown, living in the tropical areas of the Old World. Tropical Africa contains about 85 species, with the remaining 15 in tropical Asia. Catharsius are typically short and convex scarabs, with horns on head and forebody of males, sometimes also of females.
They mostly live in grasslands and pastures, occasionally in forests, where they eat large mammals’ dung, using it to make pedotrophic nests in which their offspring develop. A few species shifted from coprophagy to necrophagy, and use small vertebrates carcasses as food for both adults and larvae.
Due to their rather large size and occasional abundance, Catharsius species play important roles in the ecology and soil dynamics of tropical areas. They bury vast amounts of dung into the ground, thus improving the quality and texture of the soils. Also, they contribute to “clean” the surface of the ground, hence their name (from the Greek katharsios “purifier”).
Important species are Catharsius molossus (Linnaeus, 1758), one of the most widespread and abundant coprophagous species in tropical Asian regions.
Catharsius molossus is a species of dung beetle of the family Scarabaeidae. Catharsius molossus can reach a length of about 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.38 in) in the females, about 45 millimetres (1.8 in) in males.
This species is completely black, the body is short and convex, quite hairy on the ventral side and usually with a short conical horn in the centre of the head of the males. Pronotum is densely granulated and elytra are finely striated. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine for detoxification, swelling and constipation.
The Molossus Dung Beetle is widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). An extract of C. molossus is often used in the submerged fermentation of a medicinal fungus called "Ling Zhi" (Ganoderma lucidum) also commonly used in TCM to treat various human diseases like gastritis, hepatitis, chronic bronchitis and immunological disorders.
The extract of ethyl acetate extracts from C. molossus is known to help increase the production of bioactive compounds and polysaccharides (or sugars) in the fungus. Additionally, a polypeptide extract from C. molossus can also be used for treatment of Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or prostate gland enlargement
Anti-diabetes activity of Catharsius molossus glycosaminoglycan was evaluated to reduce glucose, creatinine kinase, triglyceride and free fatty acid levels in db mice.
Interestingly, some nocturnal species of dung beetles that belong to the same family as Catharsius molossus (Scarabaeidae) use the polarized light of the moon to orientate themselves, helping them to move in a straight line.
While studies have only been on the genus Scarabeus, there is no evidence that other nocturnal beetles do not rely on moonlight for navigation too. In light of such news, it is worth considering what effects rapid urbanisation and light pollution can have on the dung beetles. There should also be more research done on dung beetles in Singapore, especially the nocturnal ones like the Molossus Dung Beetle.
Catharsius molossus is commonly known as the Molossus beetle. In Chinese, it is known as 神農蜣螂 (shén nǒng qiāng lǎng). This directly translates to the "God Farmer's Dung beetle", while there is no direct explanation of this name, it could be linked to it's medicinal usage in Traditional Chinese Medicine and how it's tunnelling behaviour aids in soil aeration for farmers.
Catharsius molossus is one of the most widespread and abundant coprophagous species in tropical Asian regions. The Molossus Dung Beetle is found across Southeast Asia in India, southern China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and most recently, again in Singapore.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Subfamily: Scarabaeinae
Tribe: Coprini
Genus: Catharsius
Species: C. molossus
Binomial name Catharsius molossus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Its eyes emit turquoise colour under uv light
Aquarius remigis
the common water strider
the common water strider
The Gerridae are a family of insects in the order Hemiptera, commonly known as water striders, water skeeters, water scooters, water bugs, pond skaters, water skippers, Jesus bugs, or water skimmers.
While 90% of the Gerridae are freshwater bugs, the oceanic Halobates makes the family quite exceptional among insects. The family Gerridae is physically characterized by having hydrofuge hairpiles, retractable preapical claws, and elongated legs and body.
Hydrofuge hairpiles are small, hydrophobic microhairs. These are tiny hairs with more than one thousand microhairs per mm. The entire body is covered by these hairpiles, providing the water strider resistance to splashes or drops of water. These hairs repel the water, preventing drops from weighing down the body.
Water striders have two antennae with four segments on each. Antennal segments are numbered from closest to the head to farthest. The antennae have short, stiff bristles in segment III. Relative lengths of the antennae segments can help identify unique species within the family Gerridae, but in general, segment I is longer and stockier than the remaining three. The four segments combined are usually no longer than the length of the water strider head.
The thorax of water striders is generally long, narrow, and small in size. It generally ranges from 1.6 mm to 3.6 mm long across the species, with some bodies more cylindrical or rounder than others. The pronotum, or outer layer of the thorax, of the water strider can be either shiny or dull depending on the species, and covered with microhairs to help repel water. The abdomen of a water strider can have several segments and contains both the metasternum and omphalium.
Some water striders have wings present on the dorsal side of their thorax, while other species of Gerridae do not, particularly Halobates.
Consistent with the classification of the Gerridae as true bugs (i.e., suborder Heteroptera), gerrids have mouthparts evolved for piercing and sucking, and distinguish themselves by having the unusual ability to walk on water, making them pleuston (surface-living) animals. They are anatomically built to transfer their weight to be able to run on top of the water's surface. As a result, one could likely find water striders present in any pond, river, or lake. Over 1,700 species of gerrids have been described, 10% of them being marine.
Aquarius remigis, known as the common water strider, is a species of aquatic bug. It was formerly known as Gerris remigis, but the subgenus Aquarius was elevated to generic rank in 1990 on the basis of phylogenetic analysis.
Aquarius remigis grows slightly longer than .5 inches, and is dark brown to black in colour. It has a sharp rostrum that it uses to pierce the body of its prey and suck out the insides.
They normally continue to move to avoid being eaten by predators. It has good vision, and can row quickly over the surface of the water. It uses its front legs to seize its prey. During breeding season, this species can communicate with potential mates by sending ripples over on the surface of the water.
Adult females normally lay their eggs on plant stems at the water's edge. This predatory species feeds on mosquito larvae living under the surface, and dead insects on the surface, and other insects that accidentally land on the water.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Infraorder: Gerromorpha
Superfamily: Gerroidea
Family: Gerridae
Subfamily: Gerrinae
Genus: Aquarius
Species: A. remigis
Binomial name Aquarius remigis
(Say, 1832)
Synonyms
Gerris remigis Say, 1832
While 90% of the Gerridae are freshwater bugs, the oceanic Halobates makes the family quite exceptional among insects. The family Gerridae is physically characterized by having hydrofuge hairpiles, retractable preapical claws, and elongated legs and body.
Hydrofuge hairpiles are small, hydrophobic microhairs. These are tiny hairs with more than one thousand microhairs per mm. The entire body is covered by these hairpiles, providing the water strider resistance to splashes or drops of water. These hairs repel the water, preventing drops from weighing down the body.
Water striders have two antennae with four segments on each. Antennal segments are numbered from closest to the head to farthest. The antennae have short, stiff bristles in segment III. Relative lengths of the antennae segments can help identify unique species within the family Gerridae, but in general, segment I is longer and stockier than the remaining three. The four segments combined are usually no longer than the length of the water strider head.
The thorax of water striders is generally long, narrow, and small in size. It generally ranges from 1.6 mm to 3.6 mm long across the species, with some bodies more cylindrical or rounder than others. The pronotum, or outer layer of the thorax, of the water strider can be either shiny or dull depending on the species, and covered with microhairs to help repel water. The abdomen of a water strider can have several segments and contains both the metasternum and omphalium.
Some water striders have wings present on the dorsal side of their thorax, while other species of Gerridae do not, particularly Halobates.
Consistent with the classification of the Gerridae as true bugs (i.e., suborder Heteroptera), gerrids have mouthparts evolved for piercing and sucking, and distinguish themselves by having the unusual ability to walk on water, making them pleuston (surface-living) animals. They are anatomically built to transfer their weight to be able to run on top of the water's surface. As a result, one could likely find water striders present in any pond, river, or lake. Over 1,700 species of gerrids have been described, 10% of them being marine.
Aquarius remigis, known as the common water strider, is a species of aquatic bug. It was formerly known as Gerris remigis, but the subgenus Aquarius was elevated to generic rank in 1990 on the basis of phylogenetic analysis.
Aquarius remigis grows slightly longer than .5 inches, and is dark brown to black in colour. It has a sharp rostrum that it uses to pierce the body of its prey and suck out the insides.
They normally continue to move to avoid being eaten by predators. It has good vision, and can row quickly over the surface of the water. It uses its front legs to seize its prey. During breeding season, this species can communicate with potential mates by sending ripples over on the surface of the water.
Adult females normally lay their eggs on plant stems at the water's edge. This predatory species feeds on mosquito larvae living under the surface, and dead insects on the surface, and other insects that accidentally land on the water.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Infraorder: Gerromorpha
Superfamily: Gerroidea
Family: Gerridae
Subfamily: Gerrinae
Genus: Aquarius
Species: A. remigis
Binomial name Aquarius remigis
(Say, 1832)
Synonyms
Gerris remigis Say, 1832
Derbidae planthoppers
Derbidae is a family of insects in the order Hemiptera, the true bugs. It is one of the largest and most diverse families of planthoppers. It is widely distributed around the world, especially in the tropics, and with many species in subtropical and temperate regions.
The family Derbidae contains nearly 1700 species in about 159 genera.
Adult derbids feed on plants, and nymphs feed on fungi, Many adults are host-specific, feeding on a single plant species, and hide under leaves.
Many derbids are easily recognized as such by their "unusual" appearance, while others are less distinctive and difficult to identify.
The family is characterized by a row of spines on the rear leg and a short segment at the tip of the beak. The head may be quite compressed in shape. The wings are variable. Some species hold their wings outward at rest as moths do, while others keep them parallel to the body. Some have simple wings, and others have very long forewings and short hindwings. Derbids range in size from 8-11mm.
The family Derbidae was first identified/described by Maximilian Spinola in 1839. Derbids are the third-most species rich family of planthoppers. Derbidae is most diverse in the southeast. There are 13 genera and 55 species. This family, however, is not well reported and the records seem noticeably scarce in some states.
Some adults are typically associated with monocot plants most likely near their habitat as larvae. They vary from 8-11mm in length. They have the largest species richness in the topics. To protect their fragile wings, it has been noted that adults will convene under broad leaves.
Fennah revised the higher taxonomy of the family Derbidae in 1952. Then in 1996, Emeljanov re examined
the taxonomy. Derbids median carina is outmoded, the parameres of the male are elongated, and the head is either slightly or greatly compressed.
The subfamilies Otiocerinae and Derbinae have an odd appearance with their wings longer than their body and a severely compressed head. There are no known pests in this family, but they are being considered as possible vectors of diseases to palm trees in Florida. While there are more species of the family Derbidae in the tropics, this group is poorly studied and misrepresented as a whole.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Superfamily: Fulgoroidea
Family: Derbidae
Spinola, 1839
The family Derbidae contains nearly 1700 species in about 159 genera.
Adult derbids feed on plants, and nymphs feed on fungi, Many adults are host-specific, feeding on a single plant species, and hide under leaves.
Many derbids are easily recognized as such by their "unusual" appearance, while others are less distinctive and difficult to identify.
The family is characterized by a row of spines on the rear leg and a short segment at the tip of the beak. The head may be quite compressed in shape. The wings are variable. Some species hold their wings outward at rest as moths do, while others keep them parallel to the body. Some have simple wings, and others have very long forewings and short hindwings. Derbids range in size from 8-11mm.
The family Derbidae was first identified/described by Maximilian Spinola in 1839. Derbids are the third-most species rich family of planthoppers. Derbidae is most diverse in the southeast. There are 13 genera and 55 species. This family, however, is not well reported and the records seem noticeably scarce in some states.
Some adults are typically associated with monocot plants most likely near their habitat as larvae. They vary from 8-11mm in length. They have the largest species richness in the topics. To protect their fragile wings, it has been noted that adults will convene under broad leaves.
Fennah revised the higher taxonomy of the family Derbidae in 1952. Then in 1996, Emeljanov re examined
the taxonomy. Derbids median carina is outmoded, the parameres of the male are elongated, and the head is either slightly or greatly compressed.
The subfamilies Otiocerinae and Derbinae have an odd appearance with their wings longer than their body and a severely compressed head. There are no known pests in this family, but they are being considered as possible vectors of diseases to palm trees in Florida. While there are more species of the family Derbidae in the tropics, this group is poorly studied and misrepresented as a whole.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Superfamily: Fulgoroidea
Family: Derbidae
Spinola, 1839
Statilia maculata
Asian jumping mantis or "小蟷螂"
Asian jumping mantis or "小蟷螂"
Mantises are an order (Mantodea) of insects that contains over 2,400 species in about 460 genera in 33 families.
The largest family is the Mantidae ("mantids"). Mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. They have triangular heads with
bulging eyes supported on flexible necks.
Their elongated bodies may or may not have wings, but all Mantodea have forelegs that are greatly enlarged and adapted for catching and gripping prey; their upright posture, while remaining stationary with forearms folded, has led to the common name praying mantis.
Mantises are sometimes confused with stick insects (Phasmatodea), other elongated insects such as grasshoppers (Orthoptera), or other unrelated insects with raptorial forelegs such as mantisflies
(Mantispidae).
Mantises are mostly ambush predators, but a few ground-dwelling species are found actively pursuing their prey. They normally live for about a year. In cooler climates, the adults lay eggs in autumn, then die. The eggs are protected by their hard capsules and hatch in the spring. Females sometimes practice sexual cannibalism, eating their mates after copulation.
Mantises were considered to have supernatural powers by early civilizations, including Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, and Assyria. A cultural trope popular in cartoons imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale. Mantises are among the insects most commonly kept as pets.
Mantidae is one of the largest families in the order of praying mantises, based on the type species Mantis religiosa; however, most genera are tropical or subtropical. Historically, this was the only family in the order, and many references still use the term "mantid" to refer to any mantis.
Technically, however, "mantid" refers only to members of the family Mantidae, and not the 14 remaining families of mantises. Some of the most recent
classifications have promoted a number of the mantid subfamilies to the rank of family, e.g. Iridopterygidae, Sibyllidae, Tarachodidae, Thespidae, and Toxoderidae, while other classifications have reduced the number of subfamilies without elevating to higher rank.
Statilia maculata, common name Asian jumping mantis or "小蟷螂", ko-kamakiri (Japanese meaning "small mantis") or "좀사마귀", joem-sa-ma-gui (Korean meaning "small mantis"), is a species of mantis native to Asia that can be found in China and Japan and Korea and Sri Lanka . Males: 40-80mm in length as adult Females: 45-58mm in length as adult.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Mantodea
Family: Mantidae
Genus: Statilia
Species: S. maculata
Binomial name Statilia maculata
(Thunberg, 1784)
The largest family is the Mantidae ("mantids"). Mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. They have triangular heads with
bulging eyes supported on flexible necks.
Their elongated bodies may or may not have wings, but all Mantodea have forelegs that are greatly enlarged and adapted for catching and gripping prey; their upright posture, while remaining stationary with forearms folded, has led to the common name praying mantis.
Mantises are sometimes confused with stick insects (Phasmatodea), other elongated insects such as grasshoppers (Orthoptera), or other unrelated insects with raptorial forelegs such as mantisflies
(Mantispidae).
Mantises are mostly ambush predators, but a few ground-dwelling species are found actively pursuing their prey. They normally live for about a year. In cooler climates, the adults lay eggs in autumn, then die. The eggs are protected by their hard capsules and hatch in the spring. Females sometimes practice sexual cannibalism, eating their mates after copulation.
Mantises were considered to have supernatural powers by early civilizations, including Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, and Assyria. A cultural trope popular in cartoons imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale. Mantises are among the insects most commonly kept as pets.
Mantidae is one of the largest families in the order of praying mantises, based on the type species Mantis religiosa; however, most genera are tropical or subtropical. Historically, this was the only family in the order, and many references still use the term "mantid" to refer to any mantis.
Technically, however, "mantid" refers only to members of the family Mantidae, and not the 14 remaining families of mantises. Some of the most recent
classifications have promoted a number of the mantid subfamilies to the rank of family, e.g. Iridopterygidae, Sibyllidae, Tarachodidae, Thespidae, and Toxoderidae, while other classifications have reduced the number of subfamilies without elevating to higher rank.
Statilia maculata, common name Asian jumping mantis or "小蟷螂", ko-kamakiri (Japanese meaning "small mantis") or "좀사마귀", joem-sa-ma-gui (Korean meaning "small mantis"), is a species of mantis native to Asia that can be found in China and Japan and Korea and Sri Lanka . Males: 40-80mm in length as adult Females: 45-58mm in length as adult.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Mantodea
Family: Mantidae
Genus: Statilia
Species: S. maculata
Binomial name Statilia maculata
(Thunberg, 1784)
Pylaemenes mitratus
Pylaemenes is a genus of stick insects in the family Heteropterygidae and subfamily Dataminae. It combines small to medium-sized, often brightly colored Phasmatodea species. Their representatives are found in large parts of Southeast Asia.
The average size of representatives of this genus in the male sex is between 3.5 to 5.0 centimetres (1.4 to 2.0 in) and between 4.0 to 6.0 centimetres (1.6 to 2.4 in) in the females.
All species are always wingless. The basic color of adult animals is usually a light beige or brown, which can be supplemented by almost white, brown or black markings depending on the species and gender.
On the forehead, which becomes narrower towards the top, there are clear elevations that are differently designed depending on the type. The antennae are considerably longer than the femura of forelegs. One to three teeth can be found on the outer edge of the first antenna segment. The body surface is mostly covered with tubercles.
In contrast to the genus Orestes, the Meso- and Metanotum are flattened or slightly roof-shaped, with a clearly raised central keel and two lateral longitudinal keels. The pronotum is significantly shorter than half the mesonotum. Large elevations arranged in pairs can often be found on the front edge of the mesonotum, which in males can also be formed as spines.
The abdomen of the males is slender and, unlike in Orestes, the ninth tergite is strongly widened towards the rear. The abdomen of adult females is severely swollen, especially in the front half.
In contrast to Orestes, the last segment (anal segment) is strongly triangularly tapered towards the rear and notched at the end. Depending on the species, especially in males, pairs of spines can be present in certain places on the thorax and abdomen. As with all Dataminae, the females of the genus Pylaemenes have no ovipositor to lay their eggs.
The distribution area of the genus Pylaemenes includes large parts of Southeast Asia. Their representatives can be found in many areas of the Malay Archipelago and here especially on Borneo. There are also species on the Malay Peninsula, in Thailand and in China.
The nocturnal animals only come out of their hiding places in the leafy layer of the ground or on or behind the bark when it is dark. They are very lazy during the day. When they are discovered they play dead by stretching their hind legs back, the frore and middle legs forward and close to the body. The eggs can be more arched on the dorsal side and often have short hairs.
The micropylar plate has three arms, with one arm pointing towards the lid, while the other two run more or less circularly around the egg. The eggs are usually laid on the ground, clamped in the bark near the ground or attached to plants such as mosses.
Several species of the genus are present in the terrariums of enthusiasts. Pylaemenes mitratus was imported from the Malay Peninsula in 1999 by Francis Seow-Choen. The species received PSG number 212 from the Phasmid Study Group.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Superfamily: Bacilloidea
Family: Heteropterygidae
Subfamily: Dataminae
Genus: Pylaemenes
Species : P. mitratus
Stål, 1875
The average size of representatives of this genus in the male sex is between 3.5 to 5.0 centimetres (1.4 to 2.0 in) and between 4.0 to 6.0 centimetres (1.6 to 2.4 in) in the females.
All species are always wingless. The basic color of adult animals is usually a light beige or brown, which can be supplemented by almost white, brown or black markings depending on the species and gender.
On the forehead, which becomes narrower towards the top, there are clear elevations that are differently designed depending on the type. The antennae are considerably longer than the femura of forelegs. One to three teeth can be found on the outer edge of the first antenna segment. The body surface is mostly covered with tubercles.
In contrast to the genus Orestes, the Meso- and Metanotum are flattened or slightly roof-shaped, with a clearly raised central keel and two lateral longitudinal keels. The pronotum is significantly shorter than half the mesonotum. Large elevations arranged in pairs can often be found on the front edge of the mesonotum, which in males can also be formed as spines.
The abdomen of the males is slender and, unlike in Orestes, the ninth tergite is strongly widened towards the rear. The abdomen of adult females is severely swollen, especially in the front half.
In contrast to Orestes, the last segment (anal segment) is strongly triangularly tapered towards the rear and notched at the end. Depending on the species, especially in males, pairs of spines can be present in certain places on the thorax and abdomen. As with all Dataminae, the females of the genus Pylaemenes have no ovipositor to lay their eggs.
The distribution area of the genus Pylaemenes includes large parts of Southeast Asia. Their representatives can be found in many areas of the Malay Archipelago and here especially on Borneo. There are also species on the Malay Peninsula, in Thailand and in China.
The nocturnal animals only come out of their hiding places in the leafy layer of the ground or on or behind the bark when it is dark. They are very lazy during the day. When they are discovered they play dead by stretching their hind legs back, the frore and middle legs forward and close to the body. The eggs can be more arched on the dorsal side and often have short hairs.
The micropylar plate has three arms, with one arm pointing towards the lid, while the other two run more or less circularly around the egg. The eggs are usually laid on the ground, clamped in the bark near the ground or attached to plants such as mosses.
Several species of the genus are present in the terrariums of enthusiasts. Pylaemenes mitratus was imported from the Malay Peninsula in 1999 by Francis Seow-Choen. The species received PSG number 212 from the Phasmid Study Group.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Superfamily: Bacilloidea
Family: Heteropterygidae
Subfamily: Dataminae
Genus: Pylaemenes
Species : P. mitratus
Stål, 1875
Deroplatys truncata
Dead Leaf Mantis
Dead Leaf Mantis
Dead leaf mantis is a common name given to various species of praying mantis that mimic dead leaves.
It is most often used in reference to species within genus Deroplatys because of their popularity as exotic pets. Examples include D. desiccata (giant dead leaf mantis), D. lobata (Southeast Asian dead leaf mantis), and D. philippinica (Philippines dead leaf mantis).
Other species to which the term may apply include Acanthops falcataria (South American dead leaf mantis), A. falcata (South American dead leaf mantis), and Phyllocrania paradoxa (more common known as the ghost mantis).
Deroplatys truncata is a species of praying mantis in the family Deroplatyidae.
This "dead leaf mantis" species is native to Southeast Asia.
DEROPLATYS PRAYING MANTIS, the Dead Leaf Mantis, ( Deroplatys ) is a large mantis that is camouflaged as a dead leaf. It looks amazing! They are not very easy to keep and breed, but it is definately possible.
This species of praying mantis is always brown, but the shade of brown may vary between individuals. Their brown color is not solid all over, but it has dark and light spots to mimic a dead leaf. On their back they have a huge shield (prothorax), making it look even more like a dead leaf. This feature can be seen almost all species in the Deroplatys genus.
Praying mantids (more commonly known as mantises) have been beloved and feared by different cultures throughout history. They are agile, strong and specially inconspicuous insects: their great ability to mimic different elements that surrounds them and camouflage both in color and shape with the environment make them beautiful and terrifying insects at the same time for other insects.
The term praying mantis is frequently used to talk about insects that belong to Mantodea order, which has about 2300 described species worldwide nowadays. This name was given them because of the pose their raptorial forelegs adopt when being relaxed: both gathered and close to the body in an angle that resembles arms in a praying pose. On the other hand, the term mantis derives from the ancient Greek term mantis ( prophet or diviner ).
The first fossil remains of Mantodea insects date from more than 135Ma (Baissa, Siberia). They would be closely related to termites (Isoptera order) and cockroaches (Blattodea order) according to the great similarities found on their female reproductive systems, and less closely related to grasshoppers and crickets. They are usually confused with stick insects and especially with mantidflies or mantispids, which have raptorial forelegs like mantids.
Having an elongated body and a pair of raptorial forelegs responds to a predatory style of life: mantids remain immobile and in silence waiting their preys over different vegetable element of their environment (such as leafs, flowers, etc...), it is because of that that some species of mantids have evolved in color and shape to resemble or mimic elements of their environment, which allows them to be unnoticed to preys and potential predators.
Mantids are generalist carnivorous, so they feed on a great variety of insects that they stalk and hunt at high speeds. Sometimes, it has also been observed a cannibalism behavior among specimens of the same species (or even different species).
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Mantodea
Family: Deroplatyidae
Genus: Deroplatys
Species: D. truncata
Binomial name Deroplatys truncata
(Guerin-Meneville, 1843)
It is most often used in reference to species within genus Deroplatys because of their popularity as exotic pets. Examples include D. desiccata (giant dead leaf mantis), D. lobata (Southeast Asian dead leaf mantis), and D. philippinica (Philippines dead leaf mantis).
Other species to which the term may apply include Acanthops falcataria (South American dead leaf mantis), A. falcata (South American dead leaf mantis), and Phyllocrania paradoxa (more common known as the ghost mantis).
Deroplatys truncata is a species of praying mantis in the family Deroplatyidae.
This "dead leaf mantis" species is native to Southeast Asia.
DEROPLATYS PRAYING MANTIS, the Dead Leaf Mantis, ( Deroplatys ) is a large mantis that is camouflaged as a dead leaf. It looks amazing! They are not very easy to keep and breed, but it is definately possible.
This species of praying mantis is always brown, but the shade of brown may vary between individuals. Their brown color is not solid all over, but it has dark and light spots to mimic a dead leaf. On their back they have a huge shield (prothorax), making it look even more like a dead leaf. This feature can be seen almost all species in the Deroplatys genus.
Praying mantids (more commonly known as mantises) have been beloved and feared by different cultures throughout history. They are agile, strong and specially inconspicuous insects: their great ability to mimic different elements that surrounds them and camouflage both in color and shape with the environment make them beautiful and terrifying insects at the same time for other insects.
The term praying mantis is frequently used to talk about insects that belong to Mantodea order, which has about 2300 described species worldwide nowadays. This name was given them because of the pose their raptorial forelegs adopt when being relaxed: both gathered and close to the body in an angle that resembles arms in a praying pose. On the other hand, the term mantis derives from the ancient Greek term mantis ( prophet or diviner ).
The first fossil remains of Mantodea insects date from more than 135Ma (Baissa, Siberia). They would be closely related to termites (Isoptera order) and cockroaches (Blattodea order) according to the great similarities found on their female reproductive systems, and less closely related to grasshoppers and crickets. They are usually confused with stick insects and especially with mantidflies or mantispids, which have raptorial forelegs like mantids.
Having an elongated body and a pair of raptorial forelegs responds to a predatory style of life: mantids remain immobile and in silence waiting their preys over different vegetable element of their environment (such as leafs, flowers, etc...), it is because of that that some species of mantids have evolved in color and shape to resemble or mimic elements of their environment, which allows them to be unnoticed to preys and potential predators.
Mantids are generalist carnivorous, so they feed on a great variety of insects that they stalk and hunt at high speeds. Sometimes, it has also been observed a cannibalism behavior among specimens of the same species (or even different species).
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Mantodea
Family: Deroplatyidae
Genus: Deroplatys
Species: D. truncata
Binomial name Deroplatys truncata
(Guerin-Meneville, 1843)
Rhagophthalmidae
Glowworm beetle
Glowworm beetle
Glowworm or glow-worm is the common name for various groups of insect larvae and adult larviform females that glow through bioluminescence.
They include the European common glow-worm and other members of the Lampyridae, but bioluminescence also occurs in the families Elateridae, Phengodidae, and Rhagophthalmidae among beetles; as well as members of the genera Arachnocampa, Keroplatus, and Orfelia among keroplatid fungus gnats.
Four families of beetles are bioluminescent. The wingless larviform females and larvae of these bioluminescent species are usually known as "glowworms".
Winged males may or may not also exhibit
bioluminescence. Their light may be emitted as flashes or as a constant glow, and usually range in color from green, yellow, to orange.
The families are closely related, and are all members of the beetle superfamily, Elateroidea. Phylogenetic analyses have indicated that bioluminescence may have a single evolutionary origin among the families Lampyridae, Phengodidae, and Gymnophthalmidae; but is likely to have arisen independently among Elateridae.
Family Elateridae – The click beetles. Of the estimated 10,000 species classified under this family, around 200 species from tropical regions of the Americas and some Melanesian islands are bioluminescent. All of them are members of the subfamily Pyrophorinae, except for one species, Campyloxenus pyrothorax, which belongs to subfamily Campyloxeninae, and Balgus schnusei, in Thylacosterninae.
Family Lampyridae – True fireflies. Contains around 2,000 species found throughout the world. Some "glow worms" are in this family.
Family Phengodidae – Usually known as glowworm beetles. Contains around 230 species endemic to the New World. This family also includes railroad worms, which are unique among all terrestrial bioluminescent organisms in producing red light.
Family Rhagophthalmidae – Contains around 30 species found in Asia. The validity of this family has not been fully resolved. Rhagophthalmidae was formerly considered to be a subfamily under Phengodidae before being treated as a distinct family. Some authors who now believe that it should be classified under Lampyridae.
The Rhagophthalmidae are a family of beetles within the superfamily Elateroidea. Members of this beetle family have bioluminescent organs on the larvae, and sometimes adults, and are closely related to the Phengodidae (glowworm beetles), though historically they have been often treated as a subfamily of Lampyridae, or as related to that family.
Some recent evidence suggested that they were the sister group to the Phengodidae, and somewhat distantly related to Lampyridae, whose sister taxon was Cantharidae, but more reliable genome-based phylogenetics placed (Rhagophthalmidae + Phengodidae) as the sister group to the Lampyridae.
Whatever their relationships may be, Rhagophthalmidae are distributed in the Old World, and little is known of their biology. Females are usually wingless and look like larvae, but have an adult beetle's eyes, antennae and legs; in the genus Diplocladon, they resemble larvae even more, with small light organs on all trunk segments. Larvae and females live in soil and litter and are predaceous; males may be attracted to lights at night.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Superfamily: Elateroidea
Family: Rhagophthalmidae
Olivier, 1907
Synonyms
Rhagophthalminae
They include the European common glow-worm and other members of the Lampyridae, but bioluminescence also occurs in the families Elateridae, Phengodidae, and Rhagophthalmidae among beetles; as well as members of the genera Arachnocampa, Keroplatus, and Orfelia among keroplatid fungus gnats.
Four families of beetles are bioluminescent. The wingless larviform females and larvae of these bioluminescent species are usually known as "glowworms".
Winged males may or may not also exhibit
bioluminescence. Their light may be emitted as flashes or as a constant glow, and usually range in color from green, yellow, to orange.
The families are closely related, and are all members of the beetle superfamily, Elateroidea. Phylogenetic analyses have indicated that bioluminescence may have a single evolutionary origin among the families Lampyridae, Phengodidae, and Gymnophthalmidae; but is likely to have arisen independently among Elateridae.
Family Elateridae – The click beetles. Of the estimated 10,000 species classified under this family, around 200 species from tropical regions of the Americas and some Melanesian islands are bioluminescent. All of them are members of the subfamily Pyrophorinae, except for one species, Campyloxenus pyrothorax, which belongs to subfamily Campyloxeninae, and Balgus schnusei, in Thylacosterninae.
Family Lampyridae – True fireflies. Contains around 2,000 species found throughout the world. Some "glow worms" are in this family.
Family Phengodidae – Usually known as glowworm beetles. Contains around 230 species endemic to the New World. This family also includes railroad worms, which are unique among all terrestrial bioluminescent organisms in producing red light.
Family Rhagophthalmidae – Contains around 30 species found in Asia. The validity of this family has not been fully resolved. Rhagophthalmidae was formerly considered to be a subfamily under Phengodidae before being treated as a distinct family. Some authors who now believe that it should be classified under Lampyridae.
The Rhagophthalmidae are a family of beetles within the superfamily Elateroidea. Members of this beetle family have bioluminescent organs on the larvae, and sometimes adults, and are closely related to the Phengodidae (glowworm beetles), though historically they have been often treated as a subfamily of Lampyridae, or as related to that family.
Some recent evidence suggested that they were the sister group to the Phengodidae, and somewhat distantly related to Lampyridae, whose sister taxon was Cantharidae, but more reliable genome-based phylogenetics placed (Rhagophthalmidae + Phengodidae) as the sister group to the Lampyridae.
Whatever their relationships may be, Rhagophthalmidae are distributed in the Old World, and little is known of their biology. Females are usually wingless and look like larvae, but have an adult beetle's eyes, antennae and legs; in the genus Diplocladon, they resemble larvae even more, with small light organs on all trunk segments. Larvae and females live in soil and litter and are predaceous; males may be attracted to lights at night.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Superfamily: Elateroidea
Family: Rhagophthalmidae
Olivier, 1907
Synonyms
Rhagophthalminae
Spittlebugs foam
cuckoo spit, frog spit, or snake spit.
cuckoo spit, frog spit, or snake spit.
Spittlebugs feed on plant sap and then excrete bubbly foam to create a protective fortress around themselves. Later, they emerge as adult froghoppers.
The froghoppers, or the superfamily Cercopoidea, are a group of hemipteran insects in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha. Adults are capable of jumping many times their height and length, giving the group their common name, but they are best known for their plant-sucking nymphs which encase themselves in foam in springtime.
The nymphs, called spittlebugs, make the foam, although it isn’t actually spittle. The bugs create the mass of bubbles by emitting air from their abdomen into their copious and watery urine, mixed with some sticky fluid to aid in bubble formation.
Spittlebug nymphs, these families are best known for the nymphal stage, which produces a cover of foamed-up plant sap visually resembling saliva; the nymphs are therefore commonly known as spittlebugs and their foam as cuckoo spit, frog spit, or snake spit.
This characteristic spittle production is associated with the unusual trait of xylem feeding. Whereas most insects that feed on sap feed on the nutrient-rich fluid from the phloem, Cercopidae utilize the much more dilute sap flowing upward from the roots via the xylem. The large amount of excess water that must be excreted and the evolution of special breathing tubes allow the young spittlebug nymphs to grow in the relatively protective environment of the spittle. Normally an animal shouldn't be able to survive on a diet so low in nutrients, but the insects' digestive system have two symbiotic bacteria that provides them with the essential amino acids.
The foam serves a number of purposes. It hides the nymph from the view of predators and parasites, and it insulates against heat and cold, thus providing thermal control and also moisture control; without the foam, the insect would quickly dry up.
The nymphs pierce plants and suck sap causing very little damage, much of the filtered fluids go into the production of the foam, which has an acrid taste, deterring predators. A few species are serious agricultural pests.
A small family in the group, the Machaerotidae, known as the tube spittlebugs, is an outlier among the Cercopoidea because the nymphs live in calcareous tubes rather than producing foam as in the other families.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Superfamily: Cercopoidea
Leach, 1815
The froghoppers, or the superfamily Cercopoidea, are a group of hemipteran insects in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha. Adults are capable of jumping many times their height and length, giving the group their common name, but they are best known for their plant-sucking nymphs which encase themselves in foam in springtime.
The nymphs, called spittlebugs, make the foam, although it isn’t actually spittle. The bugs create the mass of bubbles by emitting air from their abdomen into their copious and watery urine, mixed with some sticky fluid to aid in bubble formation.
Spittlebug nymphs, these families are best known for the nymphal stage, which produces a cover of foamed-up plant sap visually resembling saliva; the nymphs are therefore commonly known as spittlebugs and their foam as cuckoo spit, frog spit, or snake spit.
This characteristic spittle production is associated with the unusual trait of xylem feeding. Whereas most insects that feed on sap feed on the nutrient-rich fluid from the phloem, Cercopidae utilize the much more dilute sap flowing upward from the roots via the xylem. The large amount of excess water that must be excreted and the evolution of special breathing tubes allow the young spittlebug nymphs to grow in the relatively protective environment of the spittle. Normally an animal shouldn't be able to survive on a diet so low in nutrients, but the insects' digestive system have two symbiotic bacteria that provides them with the essential amino acids.
The foam serves a number of purposes. It hides the nymph from the view of predators and parasites, and it insulates against heat and cold, thus providing thermal control and also moisture control; without the foam, the insect would quickly dry up.
The nymphs pierce plants and suck sap causing very little damage, much of the filtered fluids go into the production of the foam, which has an acrid taste, deterring predators. A few species are serious agricultural pests.
A small family in the group, the Machaerotidae, known as the tube spittlebugs, is an outlier among the Cercopoidea because the nymphs live in calcareous tubes rather than producing foam as in the other families.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Superfamily: Cercopoidea
Leach, 1815
Shot with uv torch
Hoverflies
Hoverflies, also called flower flies or syrphid flies, make up the insect family Syrphidae. As their common name suggests, they are often seen hovering or nectaring at flowers; the adults of many species feed mainly on nectar and pollen, while the larvae (maggots) eat a wide range of foods. In some species, the larvae are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant and animal matter in the soil or in ponds and streams. In other species, the larvae are insectivores and prey on aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects.
Aphids alone cause tens of millions of dollars of damage to crops worldwide every year; because of this, aphid-eating hoverflies are recognized as important natural enemies of pests, and potential agents for use in biological control. Some adult syrphid flies are important pollinators.
About 6,000 species in 200 genera have been described. Hoverflies are common throughout the world and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. Hoverflies are harmless to most other animals, despite their mimicry of stinging wasps and bees, a mimicry which serves to ward off predators.
The size of hoverflies varies depending on the species. Some, such as members of the genus Baccha, are small, elongated, and slender, while others, such as members of Criorhina, are large, hairy, and yellow and black. As members of the Diptera, all hoverflies have a single functional pair of wings (the hind wings are reduced to balancing organs). Many species are brightly colored, with spots, stripes, and bands of yellow or brown covering their bodies. Due to this coloring, they are often mistaken for wasps or bees; they exhibit Batesian mimicry. Despite this, hoverflies are harmless to humans.
With a few exceptions, hoverflies are distinguished from other flies by having a spurious vein, located parallel to their fourth longitudinal wing vein. Adults feed mainly on nectar and pollen. Many species also hover around flowers, lending to their common name.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Section: Aschiza
Superfamily: Syrphoidea
Family: Syrphidae
Latreille, 1802
Aphids alone cause tens of millions of dollars of damage to crops worldwide every year; because of this, aphid-eating hoverflies are recognized as important natural enemies of pests, and potential agents for use in biological control. Some adult syrphid flies are important pollinators.
About 6,000 species in 200 genera have been described. Hoverflies are common throughout the world and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. Hoverflies are harmless to most other animals, despite their mimicry of stinging wasps and bees, a mimicry which serves to ward off predators.
The size of hoverflies varies depending on the species. Some, such as members of the genus Baccha, are small, elongated, and slender, while others, such as members of Criorhina, are large, hairy, and yellow and black. As members of the Diptera, all hoverflies have a single functional pair of wings (the hind wings are reduced to balancing organs). Many species are brightly colored, with spots, stripes, and bands of yellow or brown covering their bodies. Due to this coloring, they are often mistaken for wasps or bees; they exhibit Batesian mimicry. Despite this, hoverflies are harmless to humans.
With a few exceptions, hoverflies are distinguished from other flies by having a spurious vein, located parallel to their fourth longitudinal wing vein. Adults feed mainly on nectar and pollen. Many species also hover around flowers, lending to their common name.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Section: Aschiza
Superfamily: Syrphoidea
Family: Syrphidae
Latreille, 1802
Callirhipis formosana
Male
Male
Callirhipis is a genus of beetles in the family Callirhipidae. It was described by Pierre André Latreille in 1829.
Callirhipidae is a family of cedar beetles in the order Coleoptera. There are ten genera in Callirhipidae.
Beetles are a group of insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects.
The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal life-forms; new species are discovered frequently. The largest of all families, the Curculionidae (weevils), with some 83,000 member species, belongs to this order.
Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways, beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae (ladybirds or ladybugs) eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.
Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra, though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra.
The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving.
Beetles are endopterygotes, which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis, with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage.
Some, such as stag beetles, have a marked sexual dimorphism, the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males.
Many beetles are aposematic, with bright colours and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects. Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effective camouflage.
Beetles are prominent in human culture, from the sacred scarabs of ancient Egypt to beetlewing art and use as pets or fighting insects for entertainment and gambling. Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively coloured making them objects of collection and decorative displays.
Over 300 species are used as food, mostly as larvae; species widely consumed include mealworms
and rhinoceros beetle larvae. However, the major impact of beetles on human life is as agricultural, forestry, and horticultural pests. Serious pests include the boll weevil of cotton, the Colorado potato beetle, the coconut hispine beetle, and the mountain pine beetle. Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and many, such as the lady beetles and dung beetles are beneficial by helping to control insect pests.
Beetles are found in nearly all habitats, including freshwater and coastal habitats, wherever vegetative foliage is found, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots - even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue, including dead or decaying ones. Tropical forest canopies have a large and diverse fauna of beetles, including Carabidae, Chrysomelidae and Scarabaeidae.
Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra) not usable for flying. Almost all beetles have mandibles that move in a horizontal plane. The mouthparts are rarely suctorial, though they are sometimes reduced; the maxillae always bear palps.
The antennae usually have 11 or fewer segments, except in some groups like the Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) and the Rhipiceridae (cicada parasite beetles). The coxae of the legs are usually located recessed within a coxal cavity. The genitalic structures are telescoped into the last abdominal segment in all extant beetles.
Beetle larvae can often be confused with those of other endopterygote groups. The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility.
The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
Because there are so many species, identification is quite difficult, and relies on attributes including the shape of the antennae, the tarsal formulae and shapes of these small segments on the legs, the mouthparts, and the ventral plates (sterna, pleura, coxae). In many species accurate identification can only be made by examination of the unique male genitalic structures.
Beetle antennae are primarily organs of sensory perception and can detect motion, odour and chemical substances, but may also be used to physically feel a beetle's environment. Beetle families may use antennae in different ways.
For example, when moving quickly, tiger beetles may not be able to see very well and instead hold their antennae rigidly in front of them in order to avoid obstacles.
Certain Cerambycidae use antennae to balance, and blister beetles may use them for grasping. Some aquatic beetle species may use antennae for gathering air and passing it under the body whilst submerged. Equally, some families use antennae during mating, and a few species use them for defence.
Beetles antennae vary greatly in form, sometimes between the sexes, but are often similar within any given family. Antennae may be clubbed, threadlike, angled, shaped like a string of beads, comb-like (either on one side or both, bipectinate), or toothed.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Superfamily: Byrrhoidea
Family: Callirhipidae
Emden, 1924
Genus : Callirhipis
Latreille in Cuvier, 1829
Species : C. formosana
Callirhipidae is a family of cedar beetles in the order Coleoptera. There are ten genera in Callirhipidae.
Beetles are a group of insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects.
The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal life-forms; new species are discovered frequently. The largest of all families, the Curculionidae (weevils), with some 83,000 member species, belongs to this order.
Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways, beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae (ladybirds or ladybugs) eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.
Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra, though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra.
The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving.
Beetles are endopterygotes, which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis, with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage.
Some, such as stag beetles, have a marked sexual dimorphism, the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males.
Many beetles are aposematic, with bright colours and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects. Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effective camouflage.
Beetles are prominent in human culture, from the sacred scarabs of ancient Egypt to beetlewing art and use as pets or fighting insects for entertainment and gambling. Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively coloured making them objects of collection and decorative displays.
Over 300 species are used as food, mostly as larvae; species widely consumed include mealworms
and rhinoceros beetle larvae. However, the major impact of beetles on human life is as agricultural, forestry, and horticultural pests. Serious pests include the boll weevil of cotton, the Colorado potato beetle, the coconut hispine beetle, and the mountain pine beetle. Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and many, such as the lady beetles and dung beetles are beneficial by helping to control insect pests.
Beetles are found in nearly all habitats, including freshwater and coastal habitats, wherever vegetative foliage is found, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots - even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue, including dead or decaying ones. Tropical forest canopies have a large and diverse fauna of beetles, including Carabidae, Chrysomelidae and Scarabaeidae.
Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra) not usable for flying. Almost all beetles have mandibles that move in a horizontal plane. The mouthparts are rarely suctorial, though they are sometimes reduced; the maxillae always bear palps.
The antennae usually have 11 or fewer segments, except in some groups like the Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) and the Rhipiceridae (cicada parasite beetles). The coxae of the legs are usually located recessed within a coxal cavity. The genitalic structures are telescoped into the last abdominal segment in all extant beetles.
Beetle larvae can often be confused with those of other endopterygote groups. The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility.
The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
Because there are so many species, identification is quite difficult, and relies on attributes including the shape of the antennae, the tarsal formulae and shapes of these small segments on the legs, the mouthparts, and the ventral plates (sterna, pleura, coxae). In many species accurate identification can only be made by examination of the unique male genitalic structures.
Beetle antennae are primarily organs of sensory perception and can detect motion, odour and chemical substances, but may also be used to physically feel a beetle's environment. Beetle families may use antennae in different ways.
For example, when moving quickly, tiger beetles may not be able to see very well and instead hold their antennae rigidly in front of them in order to avoid obstacles.
Certain Cerambycidae use antennae to balance, and blister beetles may use them for grasping. Some aquatic beetle species may use antennae for gathering air and passing it under the body whilst submerged. Equally, some families use antennae during mating, and a few species use them for defence.
Beetles antennae vary greatly in form, sometimes between the sexes, but are often similar within any given family. Antennae may be clubbed, threadlike, angled, shaped like a string of beads, comb-like (either on one side or both, bipectinate), or toothed.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Superfamily: Byrrhoidea
Family: Callirhipidae
Emden, 1924
Genus : Callirhipis
Latreille in Cuvier, 1829
Species : C. formosana
Longhorn beetles
The longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae), also known as long-horned or longicorns, are a large family of beetles, with over 26,000 species described, slightly more than half from the Eastern Hemisphere.
Most species are characterized by extremely long antennae, which are often as long as or longer than the beetle's body. In various members of the family, however, the antennae are quite short (e.g., Neandra brunnea) and such species can be difficult to distinguish from related beetle families such as the Chrysomelidae.
The scientific name of this beetle family goes back to a figure from Greek mythology: after an argument with nymphs, the shepherd Cerambus was transformed into a large beetle with horns.
Other than the antennal length, the most consistently distinctive feature of the family is that the antennal sockets are located on low tubercles on the face; other beetles with long antennae lack these tubercles, and cerambycids with short antennae still possess them.
They otherwise vary greatly in size, shape, sculpture, and coloration. A number of species mimic ants, bees, and wasps, though a majority of species are cryptically colored. The titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) from northeastern South America is often considered the largest insect (though not the heaviest, and not the longest including legs), with a maximum known body length of just over 16.7 cm (6.6 in).
All known longhorn beetle larvae feed on plant tissue such as stems, trunks, or roots of both herbaceous and woody plants, often in injured or weak trees. A few species are serious pests. The larvae, called roundheaded borers, bore into wood, where they can cause extensive damage to either living trees or untreated lumber (or, occasionally, to wood in buildings; the old-house borer, Hylotrupes bajulus, is a particular problem indoors).
As with many large families, different authorities have tended to recognize many different subfamilies, or sometimes split subfamilies off as separate families entirely (e.g., Disteniidae, Oxypeltidae, and Vesperidae) and there is thus some instability and controversy regarding the constituency of the Cerambycidae.
There are few truly defining features for the group as a whole, at least as adults, as there are occasional species or species groups which may lack any given feature; the family and its closest relatives, therefore, constitute a taxonomically difficult group, and relationships of the various lineages are still poorly understood.
The oldest member of the family is Cerambycinus from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone of Germany, with other Mesozoic fossils including Cretoprionus and Sinopraecipuus from the Aptian aged Yixian Formation of China, and Qitianniu from the early Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) aged Burmese amber, belonging to the subfamily Subfamily Prioninae, Tribe Meroscelisini.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Chrysomeloidea
Family: Cerambycidae
Latreille, 1802
Most species are characterized by extremely long antennae, which are often as long as or longer than the beetle's body. In various members of the family, however, the antennae are quite short (e.g., Neandra brunnea) and such species can be difficult to distinguish from related beetle families such as the Chrysomelidae.
The scientific name of this beetle family goes back to a figure from Greek mythology: after an argument with nymphs, the shepherd Cerambus was transformed into a large beetle with horns.
Other than the antennal length, the most consistently distinctive feature of the family is that the antennal sockets are located on low tubercles on the face; other beetles with long antennae lack these tubercles, and cerambycids with short antennae still possess them.
They otherwise vary greatly in size, shape, sculpture, and coloration. A number of species mimic ants, bees, and wasps, though a majority of species are cryptically colored. The titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) from northeastern South America is often considered the largest insect (though not the heaviest, and not the longest including legs), with a maximum known body length of just over 16.7 cm (6.6 in).
All known longhorn beetle larvae feed on plant tissue such as stems, trunks, or roots of both herbaceous and woody plants, often in injured or weak trees. A few species are serious pests. The larvae, called roundheaded borers, bore into wood, where they can cause extensive damage to either living trees or untreated lumber (or, occasionally, to wood in buildings; the old-house borer, Hylotrupes bajulus, is a particular problem indoors).
As with many large families, different authorities have tended to recognize many different subfamilies, or sometimes split subfamilies off as separate families entirely (e.g., Disteniidae, Oxypeltidae, and Vesperidae) and there is thus some instability and controversy regarding the constituency of the Cerambycidae.
There are few truly defining features for the group as a whole, at least as adults, as there are occasional species or species groups which may lack any given feature; the family and its closest relatives, therefore, constitute a taxonomically difficult group, and relationships of the various lineages are still poorly understood.
The oldest member of the family is Cerambycinus from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone of Germany, with other Mesozoic fossils including Cretoprionus and Sinopraecipuus from the Aptian aged Yixian Formation of China, and Qitianniu from the early Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) aged Burmese amber, belonging to the subfamily Subfamily Prioninae, Tribe Meroscelisini.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Chrysomeloidea
Family: Cerambycidae
Latreille, 1802
Chrysodema sp
Jewel beetles
Jewel beetles
Chrysodema is a genus of beetles in the family Buprestidae.
Buprestidae is a family of beetles known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles because of their glossy iridescent colors. Larvae of this family
are known as flatheaded borers.
The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some 15,500 species known in 775 genera. In addition, almost 100 fossil species have been described.
The larger and more spectacularly colored jewel beetles are highly prized by insect collectors. The elytra of some Buprestidae species have been traditionally used in beetlewing jewellery and decoration in certain countries in Asia, like India, Thailand and Japan.
Jewel beetle classification is not yet robustly established, although there appear to be five or six main lineages, which may be considered subfamilies, possibly with one or two being raised to families in their own right.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Buprestoidea
Family: Buprestidae
Subfamily: Chrysochroinae
Tribe: Chrysochroini
Genus: Chrysodema
Species: unidentified sp
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Family: Buprestidae
Leach, 1815
Buprestidae is a family of beetles known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles because of their glossy iridescent colors. Larvae of this family
are known as flatheaded borers.
The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some 15,500 species known in 775 genera. In addition, almost 100 fossil species have been described.
The larger and more spectacularly colored jewel beetles are highly prized by insect collectors. The elytra of some Buprestidae species have been traditionally used in beetlewing jewellery and decoration in certain countries in Asia, like India, Thailand and Japan.
Jewel beetle classification is not yet robustly established, although there appear to be five or six main lineages, which may be considered subfamilies, possibly with one or two being raised to families in their own right.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Buprestoidea
Family: Buprestidae
Subfamily: Chrysochroinae
Tribe: Chrysochroini
Genus: Chrysodema
Species: unidentified sp
Suborder: Polyphaga
Infraorder: Elateriformia
Family: Buprestidae
Leach, 1815
Archaeognatha
Bristletails
Bristletails
The Archaeognatha are an order of apterygotes, known by various common names such as jumping bristletails.
Among extant insect taxa they are some of the most evolutionarily primitive; they appeared in the Middle Devonian period at about the same time as the arachnids.
Specimens that closely resemble extant species have been found as both body and trace fossils (the latter including body imprints and trackways) in strata from the remainder of the Paleozoic Era and more recent periods. For historical reasons an alternative name for the order is Microcoryphia.
Until the late 20th century the suborders Zygentoma and Archaeognatha comprised the order Thysanura; both orders possess three-pronged tails comprising two lateral cerci and a medial epiproct or appendix dorsalis.
Of the three organs, the appendix dorsalis is considerably longer than the two cerci; in this the Archaeognatha differ from the Zygentoma, in which the three organs are subequal in length.
In the late 20th century, it was recognized that the order Thysanura was paraphyletic, thus the two suborders were each raised to the status of an independent monophyletic order, with Archaeognatha sister taxon to the Dicondylia, including the Zygentoma.
The order Archaeognatha is cosmopolitan; it includes roughly 500 species in two families. No species is currently evaluated as being at conservation risk.
Archaeognatha are small insects with elongated bodies and backs that are arched, especially over the thorax. They have three long tail-like structures, of which the lateral two are cerci, while the medial filament, which is longest, is an epiproct. The antennae are flexible. The two large compound eyes meet at the top of the head, and there are three ocelli. The mouthparts are partly retractable, with simple chewing mandibles and long maxillary palps.
Archaeognatha differ from Zygentoma in various ways, such as their relatively small head, their bodies being compressed laterally (from side to side) instead of flattened dorsiventrally, and in their being able to use their tails to spring up to 30 cm (12 in) into the air if disturbed. They also are unique among insects in possessing small, articulated "styli" on the hind (and sometimes middle) coxae and on sternites 2 to 9, which some authorities consider to be vestigial appendages. They have paired eversible membranous vesicles through which they absorb water.
Further unusual features are that the abdominal sternites are each composed of three sclerites, and they cement themselves to the substrate before molting.
As in the Zygentoma, the body is covered with readily detached scales, that make the animals difficult to grip and also may protect the exoskeleton from abrasion. The thin exoskeleton offers little protection against dehydration. The animals accordingly must remain in moist air, such as in cool, damp situations under stones or bark.
The name Archaeognatha is derived from Greek, (archaios) meaning ancient and (gnathos) meaning "jaw". This refers to the articulation of the mandibles, which have a single phylogenetically primitive condyle each, where all more derived insects have two.
An alternative name, Microcoryphia, comes from the Greek (mikros), meaning "small", and (koryphē), which in context means "head".
Archaeognatha occur in a wide range of habitats. While most species live in moist soil, others have adapted to chaparral, and even sandy deserts. They feed primarily on algae, but also lichens, mosses, or decaying organic detritus.
During courtship, the males spin a thread from the abdomen, attach one end to the substrate, and string packages of sperm (spermatophores) along it. After a series of courtship dances, the female picks up the spermatophores and places them on her ovipositor. She then lays a batch of around 30 eggs in a suitable crevice. The young resemble the adults, and take up to two years to reach sexual maturity, depending on the species and conditions such as temperature and available food.
Unlike most insects, the adults continue to moult after reaching adulthood, and typically mate once at each instar. Archaeognaths may have a total lifespan of up to four years, longer than most larger insects.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Monocondylia
Haeckel, 1866
Order: Archaeognatha
Börner, 1904
Among extant insect taxa they are some of the most evolutionarily primitive; they appeared in the Middle Devonian period at about the same time as the arachnids.
Specimens that closely resemble extant species have been found as both body and trace fossils (the latter including body imprints and trackways) in strata from the remainder of the Paleozoic Era and more recent periods. For historical reasons an alternative name for the order is Microcoryphia.
Until the late 20th century the suborders Zygentoma and Archaeognatha comprised the order Thysanura; both orders possess three-pronged tails comprising two lateral cerci and a medial epiproct or appendix dorsalis.
Of the three organs, the appendix dorsalis is considerably longer than the two cerci; in this the Archaeognatha differ from the Zygentoma, in which the three organs are subequal in length.
In the late 20th century, it was recognized that the order Thysanura was paraphyletic, thus the two suborders were each raised to the status of an independent monophyletic order, with Archaeognatha sister taxon to the Dicondylia, including the Zygentoma.
The order Archaeognatha is cosmopolitan; it includes roughly 500 species in two families. No species is currently evaluated as being at conservation risk.
Archaeognatha are small insects with elongated bodies and backs that are arched, especially over the thorax. They have three long tail-like structures, of which the lateral two are cerci, while the medial filament, which is longest, is an epiproct. The antennae are flexible. The two large compound eyes meet at the top of the head, and there are three ocelli. The mouthparts are partly retractable, with simple chewing mandibles and long maxillary palps.
Archaeognatha differ from Zygentoma in various ways, such as their relatively small head, their bodies being compressed laterally (from side to side) instead of flattened dorsiventrally, and in their being able to use their tails to spring up to 30 cm (12 in) into the air if disturbed. They also are unique among insects in possessing small, articulated "styli" on the hind (and sometimes middle) coxae and on sternites 2 to 9, which some authorities consider to be vestigial appendages. They have paired eversible membranous vesicles through which they absorb water.
Further unusual features are that the abdominal sternites are each composed of three sclerites, and they cement themselves to the substrate before molting.
As in the Zygentoma, the body is covered with readily detached scales, that make the animals difficult to grip and also may protect the exoskeleton from abrasion. The thin exoskeleton offers little protection against dehydration. The animals accordingly must remain in moist air, such as in cool, damp situations under stones or bark.
The name Archaeognatha is derived from Greek, (archaios) meaning ancient and (gnathos) meaning "jaw". This refers to the articulation of the mandibles, which have a single phylogenetically primitive condyle each, where all more derived insects have two.
An alternative name, Microcoryphia, comes from the Greek (mikros), meaning "small", and (koryphē), which in context means "head".
Archaeognatha occur in a wide range of habitats. While most species live in moist soil, others have adapted to chaparral, and even sandy deserts. They feed primarily on algae, but also lichens, mosses, or decaying organic detritus.
During courtship, the males spin a thread from the abdomen, attach one end to the substrate, and string packages of sperm (spermatophores) along it. After a series of courtship dances, the female picks up the spermatophores and places them on her ovipositor. She then lays a batch of around 30 eggs in a suitable crevice. The young resemble the adults, and take up to two years to reach sexual maturity, depending on the species and conditions such as temperature and available food.
Unlike most insects, the adults continue to moult after reaching adulthood, and typically mate once at each instar. Archaeognaths may have a total lifespan of up to four years, longer than most larger insects.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Monocondylia
Haeckel, 1866
Order: Archaeognatha
Börner, 1904
Dictyoptera aurora
Golden net wing or Red net winged beetle
Golden net wing or Red net winged beetle
The Lycidae are a family in the beetle order Coleoptera, members of which are commonly called net-winged beetles. These beetles are cosmopolitan, being found in Nearctic, Palearctic, Neotropical, Afrotropical, Oriental, and Australian ecoregions.
Beetles of this family are elongated and usually found on flowers or stems. Adult males are about 10–15 mm in length, while females are a bit larger. The adults of some species are nectarivores, while some may have short adult lives during which they may not feed at all.
The head is triangular and the antennae are long, thick, and serrated. Most of them are brick-red in colour. They are protected from predators by being toxic. The predaceous larvae grow under bark or in leaf litter.
Dictyoptera aurora, known generally as the golden net-wing or red net-winged beetle is a species of net-winged beetle in the family Lycidae and can grow as long as 11 mm.
The larva feeds on decaying wood. The adult feeds on nectar, pollen, and small insects. This species can be found in decaying logs, under bark of decaying tree trunks, and also on flowers. It is named after Aurora, the Roman goddess of dawn, referring to the brilliant color of this beetle.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insect
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Lycidae
Genus: Dictyoptera
Species: D. aurora
Binomial name Dictyoptera aurora
(Herbst, 1784)
Beetles of this family are elongated and usually found on flowers or stems. Adult males are about 10–15 mm in length, while females are a bit larger. The adults of some species are nectarivores, while some may have short adult lives during which they may not feed at all.
The head is triangular and the antennae are long, thick, and serrated. Most of them are brick-red in colour. They are protected from predators by being toxic. The predaceous larvae grow under bark or in leaf litter.
Dictyoptera aurora, known generally as the golden net-wing or red net-winged beetle is a species of net-winged beetle in the family Lycidae and can grow as long as 11 mm.
The larva feeds on decaying wood. The adult feeds on nectar, pollen, and small insects. This species can be found in decaying logs, under bark of decaying tree trunks, and also on flowers. It is named after Aurora, the Roman goddess of dawn, referring to the brilliant color of this beetle.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insect
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Lycidae
Genus: Dictyoptera
Species: D. aurora
Binomial name Dictyoptera aurora
(Herbst, 1784)
Female larva and Male
Siphanta acuta
Fish Moth
Fish Moth
Siphanta acuta (also known as Fish Moth) is a plant-feeding insect in the family Flatidae.
This species of planthopper is found in various parts of the world, and is sometimes called the green planthopper or the torpedo bug.
About 15 mm long, they resemble small leaves and are generally found in trees. Their wings are triangular, and the back edge and corners of their wings are lined with dotted red.. They are known for jumping really quick from plant to plant. Another name green planthoppers is also torpedo bug. One of the Green planthopper’s main predators is the steel blue ladybird. The steel blue ladybugs like to eat the eggs planted by the planthoppers.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Flatidae
Genus: Siphanta
Species: S. acuta
Binomial name Siphanta acuta
(Walker, 1851)
This species of planthopper is found in various parts of the world, and is sometimes called the green planthopper or the torpedo bug.
About 15 mm long, they resemble small leaves and are generally found in trees. Their wings are triangular, and the back edge and corners of their wings are lined with dotted red.. They are known for jumping really quick from plant to plant. Another name green planthoppers is also torpedo bug. One of the Green planthopper’s main predators is the steel blue ladybird. The steel blue ladybugs like to eat the eggs planted by the planthoppers.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Flatidae
Genus: Siphanta
Species: S. acuta
Binomial name Siphanta acuta
(Walker, 1851)
Reduvius personatus
masked hunter nymph
masked hunter nymph
Reduvius is a large genus of reduviids or assassin bugs. The masked hunter, Reduvius personatus, is a well-known example of this genus. They are the largest predatory insects and one of the largest clades of predatory animals. They are found in many terrestrial ecosystems and microhabitats, ranging from mammal burrows in the desert to logs in rainforests.
Reduvius personatus or the masked hunter is an insect belonging to the assassin bug (Reduviidae) family. The name is because its nymphs camouflage themselves with dust. The masked hunter is a predator of small arthropods, including woodlice, lacewings, earwigs, bed bugs and termites. Masked hunters do not feed on human blood, but can bite humans in self-defense when mishandled. The bite can be extremely painful, but masked hunters do not carry Chagas disease.
Adult masked hunters are uniformly dark brown to black in color and vary in length from 17–22 mm. They have an elongated head that includes a short, three-segmented beak, as well as long, slender antennae. Their abdomen is wide, extending in the middle beyond the wings to reveal the lateral margins of their abdominal segments. Nymphs of this species resemble the adult form and are naturally dark-colored, but often appear grey or light-colored due to a camouflage layer of debris covering them. Nymphs exude a sticky substance that covers their entire body, including the antennae and all six legs, which causes dust, lint, and other small particles to adhere to the surface of their body.
The masked hunter has a Holarctic distribution. It is native to Europe, but was accidentally transported to North America and is now common in the Central and Eastern United States. It can be also found in South Africa and Eastern Canada. It has also been found in high desert regions of the North West United States.
Masked hunters, like other Hemiptera, undergo incomplete metamorphosis. Early stages of the lifecycle look like small adults and are called nymphs. Normally, one generation of masked hunter bugs occurs per year. Adults are common during midsummer, but can also be found in the winter.
Nymphs of R. personatus use their hind legs and a tarsal fan to construct a camouflaging layer of substrate on their bodies. Two layers are formed, an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles. The formation of these two layers may be the reason for the presence of long and short trichomes on the nymphs. Nymphs may use the serrated setae present on their abdomens to assist in loosening substrate for use in camouflage. The camouflage may assist the nymph in avoiding detection by both predators and prey. They hunt bed bugs at night, as well as other prey.
Both the nymphs and adults are predatory, feeding on various arthropods by piercing their bodies with sucking mouthparts.
Masked hunters prefer dry habitats and are usually only found in small numbers when they infest houses.
Masked hunters deliver a bite comparable to a bee's sting when handled or trapped. The bite can cause swelling that lasts for about a week. Because they feed on a wide variety of arthropods, they sometimes are found in homes with bed bug infestations. They can generally be controlled by dealing with the bed bug infestation.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Reduviidae
Genus: Reduvius
Species: R. personatus
Binomial name Reduvius personatus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Reduvius personatus or the masked hunter is an insect belonging to the assassin bug (Reduviidae) family. The name is because its nymphs camouflage themselves with dust. The masked hunter is a predator of small arthropods, including woodlice, lacewings, earwigs, bed bugs and termites. Masked hunters do not feed on human blood, but can bite humans in self-defense when mishandled. The bite can be extremely painful, but masked hunters do not carry Chagas disease.
Adult masked hunters are uniformly dark brown to black in color and vary in length from 17–22 mm. They have an elongated head that includes a short, three-segmented beak, as well as long, slender antennae. Their abdomen is wide, extending in the middle beyond the wings to reveal the lateral margins of their abdominal segments. Nymphs of this species resemble the adult form and are naturally dark-colored, but often appear grey or light-colored due to a camouflage layer of debris covering them. Nymphs exude a sticky substance that covers their entire body, including the antennae and all six legs, which causes dust, lint, and other small particles to adhere to the surface of their body.
The masked hunter has a Holarctic distribution. It is native to Europe, but was accidentally transported to North America and is now common in the Central and Eastern United States. It can be also found in South Africa and Eastern Canada. It has also been found in high desert regions of the North West United States.
Masked hunters, like other Hemiptera, undergo incomplete metamorphosis. Early stages of the lifecycle look like small adults and are called nymphs. Normally, one generation of masked hunter bugs occurs per year. Adults are common during midsummer, but can also be found in the winter.
Nymphs of R. personatus use their hind legs and a tarsal fan to construct a camouflaging layer of substrate on their bodies. Two layers are formed, an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles. The formation of these two layers may be the reason for the presence of long and short trichomes on the nymphs. Nymphs may use the serrated setae present on their abdomens to assist in loosening substrate for use in camouflage. The camouflage may assist the nymph in avoiding detection by both predators and prey. They hunt bed bugs at night, as well as other prey.
Both the nymphs and adults are predatory, feeding on various arthropods by piercing their bodies with sucking mouthparts.
Masked hunters prefer dry habitats and are usually only found in small numbers when they infest houses.
Masked hunters deliver a bite comparable to a bee's sting when handled or trapped. The bite can cause swelling that lasts for about a week. Because they feed on a wide variety of arthropods, they sometimes are found in homes with bed bug infestations. They can generally be controlled by dealing with the bed bug infestation.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Reduviidae
Genus: Reduvius
Species: R. personatus
Binomial name Reduvius personatus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Mimegralla albimana
Stilt legged flies
Stilt legged flies
The Micropezidae are a moderate-sized family of acalyptrate muscoid flies in the insect order Diptera, comprising about 500 species in about 50 genera and five subfamilies worldwide, (except New Zealand and Macquarie Island). They are most diverse in tropical and subtropical habitats, especially in the Neotropical Region.
Insects in this family are commonly called stilt-legged flies, after their characteristically long legs. The fore legs are markedly smaller than the other pairs. Mostly, they are long-bodied, often black flies, usually with infuscated (darkened) wings. Wings are reduced in the genera Calycopteryx and entirely absent in the ant-like Badisis ambulans.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Section: Schizophora
Subsection: Acalyptratae
Superfamily: Nerioidea
Family: Micropezidae
Loew, 1861
Genus: Mimegralla
Species : Mimegralla albimana
Insects in this family are commonly called stilt-legged flies, after their characteristically long legs. The fore legs are markedly smaller than the other pairs. Mostly, they are long-bodied, often black flies, usually with infuscated (darkened) wings. Wings are reduced in the genera Calycopteryx and entirely absent in the ant-like Badisis ambulans.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Section: Schizophora
Subsection: Acalyptratae
Superfamily: Nerioidea
Family: Micropezidae
Loew, 1861
Genus: Mimegralla
Species : Mimegralla albimana
Planthopper nymph (Flatidae)
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide.
The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers.
However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Planthoppers are laterally flattened and hold their broad wings vertically, in a tent-like fashion, concealing the sides of the body and part of the legs. Nymphs of many fulgoroids produce wax from special glands on the abdominal terga and other parts of the body. These are hydrophobic and help conceal the insects. Adult females of many families also produce wax which may be used to protect eggs.
Fulgoroid nymphs also possess a biological gear mechanism at the base of the hind legs, which keeps the legs in synchrony when the insects jump. The gears, not present in the adults, were known for decades before the recent description of their function.
Planthoppers are often vectors for plant diseases, especially phytoplasmas which live in the phloem of plants and can be transmitted by planthoppers when feeding.
A number of extinct members of Fulgoroidea are known from the fossil record, such as the Lutetian-age Emiliana from the Green River Formation (Eocene) in Colorado.
Both planthopper adults and nymphs feed by sucking sap from plants; in so doing, the nymphs produce copious quantities of honeydew, on which sooty mould often grows. One species considered to be a pest is Haplaxius crudus, which is a vector for lethal yellowing, a palm disease that nearly killed off the Jamaican Tall coconut variety.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Evans, 1946
The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers.
However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Planthoppers are laterally flattened and hold their broad wings vertically, in a tent-like fashion, concealing the sides of the body and part of the legs. Nymphs of many fulgoroids produce wax from special glands on the abdominal terga and other parts of the body. These are hydrophobic and help conceal the insects. Adult females of many families also produce wax which may be used to protect eggs.
Fulgoroid nymphs also possess a biological gear mechanism at the base of the hind legs, which keeps the legs in synchrony when the insects jump. The gears, not present in the adults, were known for decades before the recent description of their function.
Planthoppers are often vectors for plant diseases, especially phytoplasmas which live in the phloem of plants and can be transmitted by planthoppers when feeding.
A number of extinct members of Fulgoroidea are known from the fossil record, such as the Lutetian-age Emiliana from the Green River Formation (Eocene) in Colorado.
Both planthopper adults and nymphs feed by sucking sap from plants; in so doing, the nymphs produce copious quantities of honeydew, on which sooty mould often grows. One species considered to be a pest is Haplaxius crudus, which is a vector for lethal yellowing, a palm disease that nearly killed off the Jamaican Tall coconut variety.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Evans, 1946
Planthopper nymph
Nahlaksia bidadari
Bush cricket
Bush cricket
Insects in the family Tettigoniidae are commonly called katydids or bush crickets.
They have previously been known as "long-horned grasshoppers". More than 6,400 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, the Tettigoniidae are the only extant (living) family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea.
They are primarily nocturnal in habit with strident mating calls. Many katydids exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves.
Conocephalinae, meaning "conical head", is an Orthopteran subfamily in the family Tettigoniidae.
This cone-headed katydid from the Conocephalinae subfamily has a fierce appearance with its colourful green brown spotty body and black face, but in reality, it spends most of its days hiding inside hollow branches.
This species is named after the Bidadari Cemetery where it was initially discovered but it is more commonly found in the Bukit Timah and Central Catchment nature reserves.
Bidadari also implies nymph, which means an immature form of an insect that does not change greatly as it grows.
It is appropriate for this species as the adults have reduced wings and can be easily mistaken as juvenile katydids.
This female katydid (Nahlaksia bidadari) is named after the former Bidadari Cemetery which has been slated for development. Although not found in the cemetery, this new species was named after Bidadari to serve as a reminder to future generations of Singapore’s heritage.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Infraorder: Tettigoniidea
Genus: Nahlaksia
Species: N.bidadari
Residency Status: Native
Taxonomic Identification: MK Tan
They have previously been known as "long-horned grasshoppers". More than 6,400 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, the Tettigoniidae are the only extant (living) family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea.
They are primarily nocturnal in habit with strident mating calls. Many katydids exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves.
Conocephalinae, meaning "conical head", is an Orthopteran subfamily in the family Tettigoniidae.
This cone-headed katydid from the Conocephalinae subfamily has a fierce appearance with its colourful green brown spotty body and black face, but in reality, it spends most of its days hiding inside hollow branches.
This species is named after the Bidadari Cemetery where it was initially discovered but it is more commonly found in the Bukit Timah and Central Catchment nature reserves.
Bidadari also implies nymph, which means an immature form of an insect that does not change greatly as it grows.
It is appropriate for this species as the adults have reduced wings and can be easily mistaken as juvenile katydids.
This female katydid (Nahlaksia bidadari) is named after the former Bidadari Cemetery which has been slated for development. Although not found in the cemetery, this new species was named after Bidadari to serve as a reminder to future generations of Singapore’s heritage.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Infraorder: Tettigoniidea
Genus: Nahlaksia
Species: N.bidadari
Residency Status: Native
Taxonomic Identification: MK Tan
Psocoptera
Clematoscenea sp.
Clematoscenea sp.
Psocoptera are an order of insects that are commonly know as booklice, barklice or barkflies. They first appeared in the Permian period, 295–248 million years ago.
There are more than 5,500 species in 41 families in three suborders. Many of these species have only been described in recent years.
They range in size from 1–10 millimetres (0.04–0.4 in) in length.
The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books—they feed upon the paste used in binding.
The barklice are found on trees, barklice are not related to true lice, and they are not parasitic. Many species inhabit tree trunks where winged adults and nymphs can be found together, feeding on algae, lichen, fungi and dead plant tissues. Some species spin a blanket of web around the tree trunk under which they hide.
No member of this order is currently considered endangered; in fact, in 2007, Atlantopsocus adustus, a species native to Madeira and the Canary Islands, was found to have colonized the mild Cornish coast of southwest England.
In the 2000s, morphological and molecular evidence has shown that the parasitic lice (Phthiraptera) evolved from within the psocopteran suborder Troctomorpha. In modern systematics, Psocoptera and Phthiraptera are therefore treated together in the order Psocodea.
Psocids are small, scavenging insects with a relatively generalized body plan. They feed primarily on fungi, algae, lichen, and organic detritus in nature but are also known to feed on starch-based household items like grains, wallpaper glue and book bindings.
They have chewing mandibles, and the central lobe of the maxilla is modified into a slender rod. This rod is used to brace the insect while it scrapes up detritus with its mandibles. They also have a swollen forehead, large compound eyes, and three ocelli. Their bodies are soft with a segmented abdomen. Some species can spin silk from glands in their mouth. They may festoon large sections of trunk and branches in dense swathes of silk.
Some psocids have small ovipositors that are up to 1.5 times as long as the hindwings, and all four wings have a relatively simple venation pattern, with few cross-veins. The wings, if present, are held tent-like over the body. The legs are slender and adapted for jumping, rather than gripping, as in the true lice. The abdomen has nine segments, and no cerci.
There is often considerable variation in the appearance of individuals within the same species. Many have no wings or ovipositors, and may have a different shape to the thorax.
Other, more subtle, variations are also known, such as changes to the development of the setae. The significance of such changes is uncertain, but their function appears to be different from similar variations in, for example, aphids. Like aphids, however, many psocids are parthenogenic, and the presence of males may even vary between different races of the same species.
Psocids lay their eggs in minute crevices or on foliage, although a few species are known to be viviparous. The young are born as miniature, wingless versions of the adult. These nymphs typically molt six times before reaching full adulthood. The total lifespan of a psocid is rarely more than a few months.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Superorder: Psocodea
Order: Psocoptera
Genus: Clematoscenea
Species : Clematoscenea sp.
There are more than 5,500 species in 41 families in three suborders. Many of these species have only been described in recent years.
They range in size from 1–10 millimetres (0.04–0.4 in) in length.
The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books—they feed upon the paste used in binding.
The barklice are found on trees, barklice are not related to true lice, and they are not parasitic. Many species inhabit tree trunks where winged adults and nymphs can be found together, feeding on algae, lichen, fungi and dead plant tissues. Some species spin a blanket of web around the tree trunk under which they hide.
No member of this order is currently considered endangered; in fact, in 2007, Atlantopsocus adustus, a species native to Madeira and the Canary Islands, was found to have colonized the mild Cornish coast of southwest England.
In the 2000s, morphological and molecular evidence has shown that the parasitic lice (Phthiraptera) evolved from within the psocopteran suborder Troctomorpha. In modern systematics, Psocoptera and Phthiraptera are therefore treated together in the order Psocodea.
Psocids are small, scavenging insects with a relatively generalized body plan. They feed primarily on fungi, algae, lichen, and organic detritus in nature but are also known to feed on starch-based household items like grains, wallpaper glue and book bindings.
They have chewing mandibles, and the central lobe of the maxilla is modified into a slender rod. This rod is used to brace the insect while it scrapes up detritus with its mandibles. They also have a swollen forehead, large compound eyes, and three ocelli. Their bodies are soft with a segmented abdomen. Some species can spin silk from glands in their mouth. They may festoon large sections of trunk and branches in dense swathes of silk.
Some psocids have small ovipositors that are up to 1.5 times as long as the hindwings, and all four wings have a relatively simple venation pattern, with few cross-veins. The wings, if present, are held tent-like over the body. The legs are slender and adapted for jumping, rather than gripping, as in the true lice. The abdomen has nine segments, and no cerci.
There is often considerable variation in the appearance of individuals within the same species. Many have no wings or ovipositors, and may have a different shape to the thorax.
Other, more subtle, variations are also known, such as changes to the development of the setae. The significance of such changes is uncertain, but their function appears to be different from similar variations in, for example, aphids. Like aphids, however, many psocids are parthenogenic, and the presence of males may even vary between different races of the same species.
Psocids lay their eggs in minute crevices or on foliage, although a few species are known to be viviparous. The young are born as miniature, wingless versions of the adult. These nymphs typically molt six times before reaching full adulthood. The total lifespan of a psocid is rarely more than a few months.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Superorder: Psocodea
Order: Psocoptera
Genus: Clematoscenea
Species : Clematoscenea sp.
nymphs
Adult barklice
Chondroderella borneensis
(Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1895)
Tettigoniidae
Commonly called katydids or bush crickets
(Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1895)
Tettigoniidae
Commonly called katydids or bush crickets
Insects in the family Tettigoniidae are commonly called katydids (in Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the United States), or bush crickets. They have previously been known as "long-horned grasshoppers".
More than 6,400 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, the Tettigoniidae are the only extant (living) family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea.
They are primarily nocturnal in habit with strident mating calls. Many katydids exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves.
Tettigoniids range in size from as small as 5 mm (0.20 in) to as large as 130 mm (5.1 in). The smaller species typically live in drier or more stressful habitats which may lead to their small size. The small size is associated with greater agility, faster development, and lower nutritional needs.
Tettigoniids are tree-living insects that are most commonly heard at night during summer and early fall. Tettigoniids may be distinguished from the grasshopper by the length of their filamentous antennae, which may exceed their own body length, while grasshoppers' antennae are always relatively short and thickened.
The lifespan of a katydid is about a year, with full adulthood usually developing very late. Females most typically lay their eggs at the end of summer beneath the soil or in plant stem holes. The eggs are typically oval and laid in rows on the host plant. The way their ovipositor is formed relates to its function where it lays eggs. It consists of up to three pairs of appendages formed to transmit the egg, to make a place for it, and place it properly.
Tettigoniids have either sickle-shaped ovipositors which typically lay eggs in dead or living plant matter, or uniform long ovipositors which lay eggs in grass stems. When tettigoniids hatch, the nymphs often look like smaller versions of the adults, but in some species, the nymphs look nothing at all like the adult and rather mimic other species such as spiders and assassin bugs, or flowers, to prevent predation. The nymphs remain in a mimic state only until they are large enough to escape predation. Once they complete their last molt, they are then prepared to mate.
Tettigoniids are found on every continent except Antarctica. The vast majority of katydid species live in the tropical regions of the world. For example, the Amazon basin rain forest is home to over 2000 species of katydids. However, katydids are found in the cool, dry temperate regions, as well, with about 255 species in North America.
The Tettigoniidae are a large family and have been divided into a number of subfamilies.
The diet of most tettigoniids includes leaves, flowers, bark, and seeds, but many species are exclusively predatory, feeding on other insects, snails, or even small vertebrates such as snakes and lizards. Some are also considered pests by commercial crop growers and are sprayed to limit growth, but population densities are usually low, so a large economic impact is rare.
Large tettigoniids can inflict a painful bite or pinch if handled, but seldom break the skin.
Some species of bush crickets are consumed by people, such as the nsenene (Ruspolia baileyi) in Uganda and neighbouring areas.
The males of tettigoniids have sound-producing organs located on the hind angles of their front wings. In some species, females are also capable of stridulation.
Females chirp in response to the shrill of the males. The males use this sound for courtship, which occurs late in the summer. The sound is produced by rubbing two parts of their bodies together, called stridulation. One is the file or comb that has tough ridges; the other is the plectrum is used to produce the vibration. For tettigoniids, the fore wings are used to sing. Tettigoniids produce continuous songs known as trills. The size of the insect, the spacing of the ridges, and the width of the scraper all influence what sound is made.
Many katydids stridulate at a tempo which is governed by ambient temperature, so that the number of chirps in a defined period of time can produce a fairly accurate temperature reading. For American katydids, the formula is generally given as the number of chirps in 15 seconds plus 37 to give the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
True Katydids are relatives of grasshoppers and crickets. They grow over two inches long and are leaf-green in color.
Katydids have oval-shaped wings with lots of veins. They resemble leaves.
Katydids spend most of their time at the tops of trees where most of the leaves are. Usually katydids are heard, but not seen.
Unlike grasshoppers and crickets, both male and female katydids make sounds. They rub their forewings (front wings) together to "sing" to each other. Katydid hear each other with ears on their front legs. Breeding season is in late Summer and early Fall. Females will lay eggs on stems.
True Katydids eat leaves of most deciduous (lose leaves in Fall) trees and shrubs, especially oaks.
Katydids can fly short distances when threatened, but they prefer to walk and climb. When they do fly, it is more of a downward flutter. If a katydid lands on the ground, it will walk to the nearest tree and climb.
Predators of True Katydids include birds, bats, spiders, frogs, snakes, and other insect-eaters.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Infraorder: Tettigoniidea
Superfamily: Tettigonioidea
Krauss, 1902
Family: Tettigoniidae
Krauss, 1902
Genus: Chondroderella
Species : Chondroderella borneensis
(Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1895)
More than 6,400 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, the Tettigoniidae are the only extant (living) family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea.
They are primarily nocturnal in habit with strident mating calls. Many katydids exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves.
Tettigoniids range in size from as small as 5 mm (0.20 in) to as large as 130 mm (5.1 in). The smaller species typically live in drier or more stressful habitats which may lead to their small size. The small size is associated with greater agility, faster development, and lower nutritional needs.
Tettigoniids are tree-living insects that are most commonly heard at night during summer and early fall. Tettigoniids may be distinguished from the grasshopper by the length of their filamentous antennae, which may exceed their own body length, while grasshoppers' antennae are always relatively short and thickened.
The lifespan of a katydid is about a year, with full adulthood usually developing very late. Females most typically lay their eggs at the end of summer beneath the soil or in plant stem holes. The eggs are typically oval and laid in rows on the host plant. The way their ovipositor is formed relates to its function where it lays eggs. It consists of up to three pairs of appendages formed to transmit the egg, to make a place for it, and place it properly.
Tettigoniids have either sickle-shaped ovipositors which typically lay eggs in dead or living plant matter, or uniform long ovipositors which lay eggs in grass stems. When tettigoniids hatch, the nymphs often look like smaller versions of the adults, but in some species, the nymphs look nothing at all like the adult and rather mimic other species such as spiders and assassin bugs, or flowers, to prevent predation. The nymphs remain in a mimic state only until they are large enough to escape predation. Once they complete their last molt, they are then prepared to mate.
Tettigoniids are found on every continent except Antarctica. The vast majority of katydid species live in the tropical regions of the world. For example, the Amazon basin rain forest is home to over 2000 species of katydids. However, katydids are found in the cool, dry temperate regions, as well, with about 255 species in North America.
The Tettigoniidae are a large family and have been divided into a number of subfamilies.
The diet of most tettigoniids includes leaves, flowers, bark, and seeds, but many species are exclusively predatory, feeding on other insects, snails, or even small vertebrates such as snakes and lizards. Some are also considered pests by commercial crop growers and are sprayed to limit growth, but population densities are usually low, so a large economic impact is rare.
Large tettigoniids can inflict a painful bite or pinch if handled, but seldom break the skin.
Some species of bush crickets are consumed by people, such as the nsenene (Ruspolia baileyi) in Uganda and neighbouring areas.
The males of tettigoniids have sound-producing organs located on the hind angles of their front wings. In some species, females are also capable of stridulation.
Females chirp in response to the shrill of the males. The males use this sound for courtship, which occurs late in the summer. The sound is produced by rubbing two parts of their bodies together, called stridulation. One is the file or comb that has tough ridges; the other is the plectrum is used to produce the vibration. For tettigoniids, the fore wings are used to sing. Tettigoniids produce continuous songs known as trills. The size of the insect, the spacing of the ridges, and the width of the scraper all influence what sound is made.
Many katydids stridulate at a tempo which is governed by ambient temperature, so that the number of chirps in a defined period of time can produce a fairly accurate temperature reading. For American katydids, the formula is generally given as the number of chirps in 15 seconds plus 37 to give the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
True Katydids are relatives of grasshoppers and crickets. They grow over two inches long and are leaf-green in color.
Katydids have oval-shaped wings with lots of veins. They resemble leaves.
Katydids spend most of their time at the tops of trees where most of the leaves are. Usually katydids are heard, but not seen.
Unlike grasshoppers and crickets, both male and female katydids make sounds. They rub their forewings (front wings) together to "sing" to each other. Katydid hear each other with ears on their front legs. Breeding season is in late Summer and early Fall. Females will lay eggs on stems.
True Katydids eat leaves of most deciduous (lose leaves in Fall) trees and shrubs, especially oaks.
Katydids can fly short distances when threatened, but they prefer to walk and climb. When they do fly, it is more of a downward flutter. If a katydid lands on the ground, it will walk to the nearest tree and climb.
Predators of True Katydids include birds, bats, spiders, frogs, snakes, and other insect-eaters.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Infraorder: Tettigoniidea
Superfamily: Tettigonioidea
Krauss, 1902
Family: Tettigoniidae
Krauss, 1902
Genus: Chondroderella
Species : Chondroderella borneensis
(Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1895)
Laxta granicollis
Giant cockroches
Giant cockroches
Shot at MT15
Giant cockroaches, or blaberids (family Blaberidae) are the second-largest cockroach family by number of species.
Laxta granicollis, other names include Trilobite cockroaches, ‘bark cockroaches’, ‘woodroaches’ and ‘flat cockroaches’ is a species of Blaberidae that occurs in Australia. The female of this species lacks wings while the male is winged.
Trilobite cockroaches are usually dark brown, flat, oval shaped roaches that appear to have armour, and they sit close to the ground and are not usually fast movers. Trilobite cockroaches are from the family Blaberidae, the family of giant cockroaches. Trilobite cockroaches range from a size of 1 to 2.5 centimetres (0.4 to 1 inches) in length. ‘Trilobite cockroaches’ are named after ‘trilobites’ due to the females looking like the extinct, unrelated, aquatic species. There are approximately 15 species of trilobite cockroaches, all of which are native to Australia except two that can be found in Papua New Guinea.
Trilobite cockroaches can be found in wooded areas, forests and gardens, and are often found underneath objects such as leaves, bark and wood or rotting vegetation. The scientific name of trilobite cockroaches is ‘Laxta’, or ‘Laxta Walker’, the genus named after the British entomologist Francis Walker, who worked for the British Museum in the 1800s.
Trilobite cockroaches live in little groups that communicate via smell and their diet typically consists of fibres from wood. Trilobite cockroach female adults do not have wings, while males do; therefore the wings significantly change the appearance of the two genders.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Genus: Laxta
Species: L. granicollis
Binomial name Laxta granicollis
(Saussure, 1862)
Laxta granicollis, other names include Trilobite cockroaches, ‘bark cockroaches’, ‘woodroaches’ and ‘flat cockroaches’ is a species of Blaberidae that occurs in Australia. The female of this species lacks wings while the male is winged.
Trilobite cockroaches are usually dark brown, flat, oval shaped roaches that appear to have armour, and they sit close to the ground and are not usually fast movers. Trilobite cockroaches are from the family Blaberidae, the family of giant cockroaches. Trilobite cockroaches range from a size of 1 to 2.5 centimetres (0.4 to 1 inches) in length. ‘Trilobite cockroaches’ are named after ‘trilobites’ due to the females looking like the extinct, unrelated, aquatic species. There are approximately 15 species of trilobite cockroaches, all of which are native to Australia except two that can be found in Papua New Guinea.
Trilobite cockroaches can be found in wooded areas, forests and gardens, and are often found underneath objects such as leaves, bark and wood or rotting vegetation. The scientific name of trilobite cockroaches is ‘Laxta’, or ‘Laxta Walker’, the genus named after the British entomologist Francis Walker, who worked for the British Museum in the 1800s.
Trilobite cockroaches live in little groups that communicate via smell and their diet typically consists of fibres from wood. Trilobite cockroach female adults do not have wings, while males do; therefore the wings significantly change the appearance of the two genders.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Genus: Laxta
Species: L. granicollis
Binomial name Laxta granicollis
(Saussure, 1862)
This image above are sorce from google for clearer understanding in the gender.
Apis dorsata
Giant honey bee
Giant honey bee
Apis dorsata, the giant honey bee, is a honey bee of South and Southeast Asia, found mainly in forested areas such as the Terai of Nepal. They are typically around 17–20 mm (0.7–0.8 in) long.
Nests are mainly built in exposed places far off the ground, like on tree limbs, under cliff overhangs, and sometimes on buildings. These social bees are known for their aggressive defense strategies and vicious behavior when disturbed. Though not domesticating it, indigenous peoples have traditionally used this species as a source of honey and beeswax, a practice known as honey hunting.
Apis dorsata differs from the other bees in its genus in terms of nest design. Each colony consists of a single vertical comb made of workers’ wax suspended from above, and the comb is typically covered by a dense mass of bees in several layers. The nests vary in size, reaching up to 1 meter. Each cell within the comb is hexagonal in shape.
Apis dorsata store their honey in an upper corner of the nest. The same size and type of cells are used to rear larvae. Nests are constructed in the open and in elevated locations, such as on urban buildings or tall trees. These bees rarely build nests on old or weak buildings for safety concerns. Apis dorsata can form dense aggregations at one nesting site, sometimes with up to 200 colonies in one tree.
Each colony can have up to 100,000 bees and is separated by only a few centimeters from the other colonies in an aggregation. Some colonies also exhibit patterns of nest recognition, in which they return to the same nesting sites post migration.
Apis dorsata is found from the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia. The greatest populations of Apis dorsata are found in China, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. They mostly reside in tall trees in dense forests, but also build nests on urban buildings. These bees are tropical and in most places, they migrate seasonally. Individual colonies migrate between nesting sites during the transition from the rainy to dry seasons and occupy each nesting site for about 3–4 months at a time. Some recent evidence indicates these bees return to the same nest site, though most, if not all, of the original workers might be replaced in the process because workers usually live for less than two months. Furthermore, these bees build small combs that serve as temporary nests during their long migrations.
There are two methods of reproductive swarming in which Apis dorsata initiates new colonies, which usually occurs in October or November.
The most common occurs when a queen flies away from the original nest slowly and a swarm of workers follows her. This new cluster of bees can be temporary, or they can permanently move to a new nesting site. The distance these bees travel is unknown, but some have been observed to travel about 500 meters away from the original nest. The second, more rare method is referred to as “budding.” In budding, a group of workers leave the natal nest to form a new colony at a nesting site about 1 meter away from the original.
A non-reproductive method of colony initiation is absconding. Absconding refers to when an entire colony moves to a new location. As a colony is formed, multiple curtains, essentially layers, of bees are formed around the developing nest. Colony initiation is related to the migratory patterns of these bees.
As a colony is initiated, the migration depends on foraging resources and predation risks. These bees travel to different sites depending on the blooming season of flowers. There are about 100,000 members in each colony and each colony resides in one nesting site for about 3–4 months at a time. Colonies tend to decline when resources, such as food, honey, and pollen, are depleted. Colonies decline during the rainy and summer seasons because of the instability of foraging sources due to climate change.
Phylum:Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Genus: Apis
Subgenus: Megapis
Species: A. dorsata
Binomial name Apis dorsata
Fabricius, 1793
Nests are mainly built in exposed places far off the ground, like on tree limbs, under cliff overhangs, and sometimes on buildings. These social bees are known for their aggressive defense strategies and vicious behavior when disturbed. Though not domesticating it, indigenous peoples have traditionally used this species as a source of honey and beeswax, a practice known as honey hunting.
Apis dorsata differs from the other bees in its genus in terms of nest design. Each colony consists of a single vertical comb made of workers’ wax suspended from above, and the comb is typically covered by a dense mass of bees in several layers. The nests vary in size, reaching up to 1 meter. Each cell within the comb is hexagonal in shape.
Apis dorsata store their honey in an upper corner of the nest. The same size and type of cells are used to rear larvae. Nests are constructed in the open and in elevated locations, such as on urban buildings or tall trees. These bees rarely build nests on old or weak buildings for safety concerns. Apis dorsata can form dense aggregations at one nesting site, sometimes with up to 200 colonies in one tree.
Each colony can have up to 100,000 bees and is separated by only a few centimeters from the other colonies in an aggregation. Some colonies also exhibit patterns of nest recognition, in which they return to the same nesting sites post migration.
Apis dorsata is found from the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia. The greatest populations of Apis dorsata are found in China, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. They mostly reside in tall trees in dense forests, but also build nests on urban buildings. These bees are tropical and in most places, they migrate seasonally. Individual colonies migrate between nesting sites during the transition from the rainy to dry seasons and occupy each nesting site for about 3–4 months at a time. Some recent evidence indicates these bees return to the same nest site, though most, if not all, of the original workers might be replaced in the process because workers usually live for less than two months. Furthermore, these bees build small combs that serve as temporary nests during their long migrations.
There are two methods of reproductive swarming in which Apis dorsata initiates new colonies, which usually occurs in October or November.
The most common occurs when a queen flies away from the original nest slowly and a swarm of workers follows her. This new cluster of bees can be temporary, or they can permanently move to a new nesting site. The distance these bees travel is unknown, but some have been observed to travel about 500 meters away from the original nest. The second, more rare method is referred to as “budding.” In budding, a group of workers leave the natal nest to form a new colony at a nesting site about 1 meter away from the original.
A non-reproductive method of colony initiation is absconding. Absconding refers to when an entire colony moves to a new location. As a colony is formed, multiple curtains, essentially layers, of bees are formed around the developing nest. Colony initiation is related to the migratory patterns of these bees.
As a colony is initiated, the migration depends on foraging resources and predation risks. These bees travel to different sites depending on the blooming season of flowers. There are about 100,000 members in each colony and each colony resides in one nesting site for about 3–4 months at a time. Colonies tend to decline when resources, such as food, honey, and pollen, are depleted. Colonies decline during the rainy and summer seasons because of the instability of foraging sources due to climate change.
Phylum:Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Genus: Apis
Subgenus: Megapis
Species: A. dorsata
Binomial name Apis dorsata
Fabricius, 1793
Necroscia punctata
Stick Insect
Stick Insect
The stick insect resembles the twigs among which it lives, providing it with one of the most efficient natural camouflages on Earth. Leaf insect comprise the Phasmatodea order, of which there are approximately 3,000 species.
The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida, Phasmatoptera or Spectra) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walking sticks, or bug sticks. They are generally referred to as phasmatodeans, phasmids, or ghost insects.
Phasmids in the family Phylliidae are called leaf insects, leaf-bugs, walking leaves, or bug leaves. The group's name is derived from the Ancient Greek φάσμα phasma, meaning an apparition or phantom, referring to their resemblance to vegetation while in fact being animals.
Phasmids generally mimic their surroundings in color, normally green or brown, although some species are brilliantly colored and others conspicuously striped.
Stick insect species, often called walking sticks, range in size from the tiny, half-inch-long Timema cristinae of North America, to the formidable 13-inch-long Phobaeticus kirbyi of Borneo. This giant measures over 21 inches with its legs outstretched, making it one of the world’s longest insects. Females are normally larger than males.
Many stick insects have wings, some spectacularly beautiful, while others resemble little more than a stump. A number of species have spines and tubercles on their bodies.
Found predominantly in the tropics and subtropics, although several species live in temperate regions stick insects thrive in forests and grasslands, where they feed on leaves. Mainly nocturnal creatures, they spend much of their day motionless, hidden under plants.
Many stick insects feign death to thwart predators, and some will shed the occasional limb to escape an enemy’s grasp. Others swipe at predators with their spine-covered legs, while one species Anisomorpha buprestoides from North American emits a putrid-smelling fluid.
Their natural camouflage makes them difficult for predators to detect; still, many species have one of several secondary lines of defence in the form of startle displays, spines or toxic secretions. Stick insects from the genera Phryganistria, Ctenomorpha, and Phobaeticus includes the world's longest insects.
Members of the order are found on all continents except Antarctica, but they are most abundant in the tropics and subtropics. They are herbivorous, with many species living unobtrusively in the tree canopy.
They have an incomplete metamorphosis life cycle with three stages: egg, nymph and adult. Many phasmids are parthenogenic, and do not require fertilized eggs for female offspring to be produced. In hotter climates, they may breed all year round; in more temperate regions, the females lay eggs in the autumn before dying, and the new generation hatches in the spring. Some species have wings and can disperse by flying, while others are more restricted.
Necroscia is an Asian genus of stick insects in the family Diapheromeridae and subfamily Necrosciinae. Species have been recorded from South-East Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Lonchodidae
Subfamily: Necrosciinae
Genus: Necroscia
Species: N. punctata
(Gray 1835)
The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida, Phasmatoptera or Spectra) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walking sticks, or bug sticks. They are generally referred to as phasmatodeans, phasmids, or ghost insects.
Phasmids in the family Phylliidae are called leaf insects, leaf-bugs, walking leaves, or bug leaves. The group's name is derived from the Ancient Greek φάσμα phasma, meaning an apparition or phantom, referring to their resemblance to vegetation while in fact being animals.
Phasmids generally mimic their surroundings in color, normally green or brown, although some species are brilliantly colored and others conspicuously striped.
Stick insect species, often called walking sticks, range in size from the tiny, half-inch-long Timema cristinae of North America, to the formidable 13-inch-long Phobaeticus kirbyi of Borneo. This giant measures over 21 inches with its legs outstretched, making it one of the world’s longest insects. Females are normally larger than males.
Many stick insects have wings, some spectacularly beautiful, while others resemble little more than a stump. A number of species have spines and tubercles on their bodies.
Found predominantly in the tropics and subtropics, although several species live in temperate regions stick insects thrive in forests and grasslands, where they feed on leaves. Mainly nocturnal creatures, they spend much of their day motionless, hidden under plants.
Many stick insects feign death to thwart predators, and some will shed the occasional limb to escape an enemy’s grasp. Others swipe at predators with their spine-covered legs, while one species Anisomorpha buprestoides from North American emits a putrid-smelling fluid.
Their natural camouflage makes them difficult for predators to detect; still, many species have one of several secondary lines of defence in the form of startle displays, spines or toxic secretions. Stick insects from the genera Phryganistria, Ctenomorpha, and Phobaeticus includes the world's longest insects.
Members of the order are found on all continents except Antarctica, but they are most abundant in the tropics and subtropics. They are herbivorous, with many species living unobtrusively in the tree canopy.
They have an incomplete metamorphosis life cycle with three stages: egg, nymph and adult. Many phasmids are parthenogenic, and do not require fertilized eggs for female offspring to be produced. In hotter climates, they may breed all year round; in more temperate regions, the females lay eggs in the autumn before dying, and the new generation hatches in the spring. Some species have wings and can disperse by flying, while others are more restricted.
Necroscia is an Asian genus of stick insects in the family Diapheromeridae and subfamily Necrosciinae. Species have been recorded from South-East Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Lonchodidae
Subfamily: Necrosciinae
Genus: Necroscia
Species: N. punctata
(Gray 1835)
Cicindela Aurulenta
Blue Spotted tiger beetle
Blue Spotted tiger beetle
Cicindela aurulenta., common name blue-spotted or golden-spotted tiger beetle, is a beetle of the family Carabidae.
Cicindela aurulenta reaches about 16–18 millimetres (0.63–0.71 in) in length. Elytra are dark blue- green, with six large yellow or bluish spots and two smaller spots on the shoulders. Also pronotum and head are dark blue-green. It has giant prominent compound eyes, large jaws and pale colored hairs on the abdomen and legs.
This species occurs in southern China, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.
Some parts of the body will change in colour when under Utra violet light.
Tiger beetles are a large group of beetles, from the Cicindelinae subfamily, known for their aggressive predatory habits and running speed. The fastest known species of tiger beetle, Cicindela hudsoni, can run at a speed of 9 km/h (5.6 mph; 2.5 m/s), or about 125 body lengths per second. As of 2005, about 2,600 species and subspecies were known, with the richest diversity in the Oriental (Indo-Malayan) region, followed by the Neotropics.
Tiger beetles often have large bulging eyes, long, slender legs and large curved mandibles. All are predatory, both as adults and as larvae.
The larvae of tiger beetles live in cylindrical burrows as much as a meter deep. They are large-headed, hump-backed grubs and use their humpbacks to flip backwards, for the purpose of capturing prey insects that wander over the ground. The fast-moving adults run down their prey and are extremely fast on the wing, their reaction times being of the same order as that of common houseflies. Some tiger beetles in the tropics are arboreal, but most run on the surface of the ground. They live along sea and lake shores, on sand dunes, around playa lakebeds and on clay banks or woodland paths, being particularly fond of sandy surfaces.
Tiger beetles are considered a good indicator species and have been used in ecological studies on biodiversity.
Tiger beetles display an unusual form of pursuit in which they alternatively sprint quickly toward their prey, then stop and visually reorient. This may be because while running, the beetle is moving too fast for its visual system to accurately process images. To avoid obstacles while running they hold their antennae rigidly and directly in front of them to mechanically sense their environment.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Carabidae
Subfamily: Carabinae
Genus: Cicindela
Species: C. aurulenta
Binomial name Cicindela aurulenta
Fabricius, 1801
Cicindela aurulenta reaches about 16–18 millimetres (0.63–0.71 in) in length. Elytra are dark blue- green, with six large yellow or bluish spots and two smaller spots on the shoulders. Also pronotum and head are dark blue-green. It has giant prominent compound eyes, large jaws and pale colored hairs on the abdomen and legs.
This species occurs in southern China, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.
Some parts of the body will change in colour when under Utra violet light.
Tiger beetles are a large group of beetles, from the Cicindelinae subfamily, known for their aggressive predatory habits and running speed. The fastest known species of tiger beetle, Cicindela hudsoni, can run at a speed of 9 km/h (5.6 mph; 2.5 m/s), or about 125 body lengths per second. As of 2005, about 2,600 species and subspecies were known, with the richest diversity in the Oriental (Indo-Malayan) region, followed by the Neotropics.
Tiger beetles often have large bulging eyes, long, slender legs and large curved mandibles. All are predatory, both as adults and as larvae.
The larvae of tiger beetles live in cylindrical burrows as much as a meter deep. They are large-headed, hump-backed grubs and use their humpbacks to flip backwards, for the purpose of capturing prey insects that wander over the ground. The fast-moving adults run down their prey and are extremely fast on the wing, their reaction times being of the same order as that of common houseflies. Some tiger beetles in the tropics are arboreal, but most run on the surface of the ground. They live along sea and lake shores, on sand dunes, around playa lakebeds and on clay banks or woodland paths, being particularly fond of sandy surfaces.
Tiger beetles are considered a good indicator species and have been used in ecological studies on biodiversity.
Tiger beetles display an unusual form of pursuit in which they alternatively sprint quickly toward their prey, then stop and visually reorient. This may be because while running, the beetle is moving too fast for its visual system to accurately process images. To avoid obstacles while running they hold their antennae rigidly and directly in front of them to mechanically sense their environment.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Carabidae
Subfamily: Carabinae
Genus: Cicindela
Species: C. aurulenta
Binomial name Cicindela aurulenta
Fabricius, 1801
The eye colour changes under uv lighting..
Aulacophora femoralis
Aulacophora is a genus of beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, commonly known as pumpkin beetles; some species are pests of agricultural crops.
The genus was named by the French entomologist and expert on beetles, Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean. The name, from Ancient Greek, signifies "furrow-bearer"' from aulax, "furrow".
Beetles in this genus are oval insects up to about 8 mm (0.3 in) long and can be recognised by their presence on the host plant.
Beetles in this genus feed on members of the family Cucurbitaceae including cucumbers, pumpkins, melons, watermelons, gourds and squashes.
The eggs, which are yellow, are laid in batches of up to five in the soil at the base of cucurbit plants. They hatch after eight to fifteen days and the larvae feed on the roots or tunnel into them, feeding for eighteen to thirty-five days and passing through four instar stages. They are creamy white at first but have turned yellowish-orange by the time they pupate in chambers in the ground. The adult beetles emerge after from four to fourteen days. They are strong fliers and disperse to other plants. The adult beetles may live for up to ten months and each female can lay in the order of five hundred eggs, so there can be several overlapping generations of beetles.
Adult pumpkin beetles feed on the foliage and flowers of the host plants; seedlings may be destroyed by heavy attacks and young plants may be severely affected. Several beetles may cluster on a single leaf, leaving other leaves untouched. The beetles feed between the veins, often cutting and removing circular discs which they then eat. The larvae tunnel into the roots, which become swollen, discoloured and distorted, and the plant may die.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Chrysomelidae
Genus: Aulacophora
Species: femoralis
Subfamily: Galerucinae
Dejean, 1835
The genus was named by the French entomologist and expert on beetles, Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean. The name, from Ancient Greek, signifies "furrow-bearer"' from aulax, "furrow".
Beetles in this genus are oval insects up to about 8 mm (0.3 in) long and can be recognised by their presence on the host plant.
Beetles in this genus feed on members of the family Cucurbitaceae including cucumbers, pumpkins, melons, watermelons, gourds and squashes.
The eggs, which are yellow, are laid in batches of up to five in the soil at the base of cucurbit plants. They hatch after eight to fifteen days and the larvae feed on the roots or tunnel into them, feeding for eighteen to thirty-five days and passing through four instar stages. They are creamy white at first but have turned yellowish-orange by the time they pupate in chambers in the ground. The adult beetles emerge after from four to fourteen days. They are strong fliers and disperse to other plants. The adult beetles may live for up to ten months and each female can lay in the order of five hundred eggs, so there can be several overlapping generations of beetles.
Adult pumpkin beetles feed on the foliage and flowers of the host plants; seedlings may be destroyed by heavy attacks and young plants may be severely affected. Several beetles may cluster on a single leaf, leaving other leaves untouched. The beetles feed between the veins, often cutting and removing circular discs which they then eat. The larvae tunnel into the roots, which become swollen, discoloured and distorted, and the plant may die.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Chrysomelidae
Genus: Aulacophora
Species: femoralis
Subfamily: Galerucinae
Dejean, 1835
Ricanula stigmatica
Ricanula stigmatica is a small and common fulgoroidea planthopper from the family Ricaniidae.
It is moth-like in appearance, with green and brown coloration. This species can be found in Southeast Asia.
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide.
The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers. However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly so as not to attract attention. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests.
The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Ricaniidae
Genus: Ricanula
Species: R. stigmatica
Binomial name Ricanula stigmatica
(Stål, 1869)
It is moth-like in appearance, with green and brown coloration. This species can be found in Southeast Asia.
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide.
The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers. However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly so as not to attract attention. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests.
The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate ("Y"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Ricaniidae
Genus: Ricanula
Species: R. stigmatica
Binomial name Ricanula stigmatica
(Stål, 1869)
Ricania taeniata
Ricanula stigmatica
Chrysomya megacephala
Commonly known as the oriental latrine fly
Commonly known as the oriental latrine fly
Chrysomya megacephala, more commonly known as the oriental latrine fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae (blowflies). It is a warm-weather fly with a greenish-blue metallic box-like body. The fly infests corpses soon after death, making it important to forensic science. This fly is implicated in some public health issues; it can cause accidental myiasis, and also infects fish and livestock.
C. megacephala's eggs are "oval with one flat face and another convex". Adult flies reflect a metallic blue-green color on their thorax and abdomen and have yellow gena, or cheeks. Larvae vary in size according to instar and are shaped more thickly towards the rear. C. megacephala have large red eyes, those of males being close together, and those of females farther apart. The cercus of the male is longer than that of the female.
The developmental stages of C. megacephala include egg, larva and pupa. A female fly may lay as many as 200 to 300 eggs, often in human feces, meat or fish. Larval stages include first, second and third instals or growth periods. The eggs take approximately one day to develop, while the larvae take 5.4 days and the pupae 5.3 days. Population numbers as well as body size are greatly influenced by temperature. The adult lifespan of the fly is approximately seven days. The development of C. megacephala is linked to the length of time spent feeding in the larval stage, as well as to temperature; the lower the temperature, the more slowly the larvae develop. In laboratory studies conducted at 27 °C., eggs hatch in 18 hours; the first molt occurs in 30 hours; the second molt in 72 hours; pupation after 144 hours; and the adult emerges after approximately 234 hours. These intervals vary depending on geographical location; other environmental factors also can determine how long flies will stay in the larval stage. Males tend to emerge two or three hours ahead of the females.
The reproduction and survival rates of C. megacephala are closely related to developmental factors, including the amount of available food, and competition from larvae of other species, such as C. rufifacies. In the presence of competing larvae, those of C. megacephala spend less time feeding, leading to early pupation, smaller adults, and early reproduction. C. rufifacies is known to cannibalize maggot masses and is thus a huge competitor.
Chrysomya albiceps is also known to prey on C. megacephala during the larval stage when they must compete for the same food source. Beetles are also known to prey on C. megacephala. C. megacephala is not predaceous in the adult or larval form, preferring to feed on necrophagous material of any kind, such as fish, cows and humans.
Importance in forensic science :
C. megacephala is considered important to forensic science because it is one of the first flies to show up on a corpse, and so the time of death can easily be determined when Chrysomya megacephala larvae are found on a body. In many forensic entomology cases either C. rufifacies or Chrysomya megacephala are found on the decaying corpse; mitochondrial DNA is the main method used to determine which subfamily is present. The species' wide geographical distribution and high fecundity also make it useful in forensic cases; C. megacephala is among the most common blowflies found.
Larval dispersion patterns of C. megacephala also make it forensically important. Knowing that, to pupate, larvae move away from the food source to find a safe place to metamorphose, forensic entomologists can accurately calculate a post mortem interval. Knowledge of larval competition is also useful in forensic studies, because it could affect the estimate of the time of death. If only C. rufifacies is found on a body, it is not accurate to use only this species to calculate a time of colonization. The colonization of C. megacephala prior to C. rufifacies must be taken into account.
Larval-state poisoning detection :
In any part of the world that uses organophosphates, C. megacephala could prove to be beneficial. Organophosphate compounds are used in agriculture and are highly toxic. Organophosphate poisoning often causes death, and in many cases, by evaluating the body tissue and fluids, the toxin can be identified as the source of the poisoning. However, it is somewhat difficult to evaluate the body tissue in a body that is exceedingly decomposed. Nevertheless, a medical examiner in Hawaii worked on a case in which poisoning by malathion, an organophosphate insecticide, was thought to be the cause of death. The victim’s stomach contents and body fat were examined and found to have contained malathion. The fly larvae of Chrysomya megacephala and Chrysomya rufifacies were also present at the scene on the body and were tested for malathion. Both of these species did contain malathion, but there had been no previous record of organophosphates in their larvae. Studying larvae from decomposed remains may provide an effective method of determining the presence of these toxins in a body that is extremely decayed.
C. megacephala use in other research has a beneficial and practical value apart from being significant in forensic investigations; this blowfly is the source of pollination for mangos in the Australian region.
C. megacephala causes myiasis in humans and animals. This causes losses in cattle and fish industries all over the world. Studies are being done on C. megacephala to determine its role as a vector for diarrhea-causing bacteria such as E. coli.
Public health importance and management control,
C. megacephala are known to be the source of accidental (secondary) myiasis in humans, where the flies do not pierce the skin but invade an open wound.
The first record of human miasis caused by C. megacephala and C. rufifacies was in Thailand, where a 53-year-old man had a tumor lesion where the larvae accumulated. Most recorded miasis cases, however, do not involve the fly.
C. megacephala is a carrier of pathogens, such as bacteria, protozoan cysts, and helminth eggs, to human food, because it lays its eggs on human feces, and will land on human food soon after.
The flies also cause a huge economic problem in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. In these areas sun-drying is the major method of preserving fish, as ice is typically unaffordable. However, blowfly larvae tend to infect these sun-dried fish when the weather is warm and humid. In an experiment, 95% of the infecting flies were found to be C. megacephala. The flies can be controlled by using an odor that the flies are attracted to trap them. Insecticides are also used, although this results in the development of resistance.
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Chrysomya
Species: C. megacephala
Binomial name Chrysomya megacephala
(Fabricius, 1794)
C. megacephala's eggs are "oval with one flat face and another convex". Adult flies reflect a metallic blue-green color on their thorax and abdomen and have yellow gena, or cheeks. Larvae vary in size according to instar and are shaped more thickly towards the rear. C. megacephala have large red eyes, those of males being close together, and those of females farther apart. The cercus of the male is longer than that of the female.
The developmental stages of C. megacephala include egg, larva and pupa. A female fly may lay as many as 200 to 300 eggs, often in human feces, meat or fish. Larval stages include first, second and third instals or growth periods. The eggs take approximately one day to develop, while the larvae take 5.4 days and the pupae 5.3 days. Population numbers as well as body size are greatly influenced by temperature. The adult lifespan of the fly is approximately seven days. The development of C. megacephala is linked to the length of time spent feeding in the larval stage, as well as to temperature; the lower the temperature, the more slowly the larvae develop. In laboratory studies conducted at 27 °C., eggs hatch in 18 hours; the first molt occurs in 30 hours; the second molt in 72 hours; pupation after 144 hours; and the adult emerges after approximately 234 hours. These intervals vary depending on geographical location; other environmental factors also can determine how long flies will stay in the larval stage. Males tend to emerge two or three hours ahead of the females.
The reproduction and survival rates of C. megacephala are closely related to developmental factors, including the amount of available food, and competition from larvae of other species, such as C. rufifacies. In the presence of competing larvae, those of C. megacephala spend less time feeding, leading to early pupation, smaller adults, and early reproduction. C. rufifacies is known to cannibalize maggot masses and is thus a huge competitor.
Chrysomya albiceps is also known to prey on C. megacephala during the larval stage when they must compete for the same food source. Beetles are also known to prey on C. megacephala. C. megacephala is not predaceous in the adult or larval form, preferring to feed on necrophagous material of any kind, such as fish, cows and humans.
Importance in forensic science :
C. megacephala is considered important to forensic science because it is one of the first flies to show up on a corpse, and so the time of death can easily be determined when Chrysomya megacephala larvae are found on a body. In many forensic entomology cases either C. rufifacies or Chrysomya megacephala are found on the decaying corpse; mitochondrial DNA is the main method used to determine which subfamily is present. The species' wide geographical distribution and high fecundity also make it useful in forensic cases; C. megacephala is among the most common blowflies found.
Larval dispersion patterns of C. megacephala also make it forensically important. Knowing that, to pupate, larvae move away from the food source to find a safe place to metamorphose, forensic entomologists can accurately calculate a post mortem interval. Knowledge of larval competition is also useful in forensic studies, because it could affect the estimate of the time of death. If only C. rufifacies is found on a body, it is not accurate to use only this species to calculate a time of colonization. The colonization of C. megacephala prior to C. rufifacies must be taken into account.
Larval-state poisoning detection :
In any part of the world that uses organophosphates, C. megacephala could prove to be beneficial. Organophosphate compounds are used in agriculture and are highly toxic. Organophosphate poisoning often causes death, and in many cases, by evaluating the body tissue and fluids, the toxin can be identified as the source of the poisoning. However, it is somewhat difficult to evaluate the body tissue in a body that is exceedingly decomposed. Nevertheless, a medical examiner in Hawaii worked on a case in which poisoning by malathion, an organophosphate insecticide, was thought to be the cause of death. The victim’s stomach contents and body fat were examined and found to have contained malathion. The fly larvae of Chrysomya megacephala and Chrysomya rufifacies were also present at the scene on the body and were tested for malathion. Both of these species did contain malathion, but there had been no previous record of organophosphates in their larvae. Studying larvae from decomposed remains may provide an effective method of determining the presence of these toxins in a body that is extremely decayed.
C. megacephala use in other research has a beneficial and practical value apart from being significant in forensic investigations; this blowfly is the source of pollination for mangos in the Australian region.
C. megacephala causes myiasis in humans and animals. This causes losses in cattle and fish industries all over the world. Studies are being done on C. megacephala to determine its role as a vector for diarrhea-causing bacteria such as E. coli.
Public health importance and management control,
C. megacephala are known to be the source of accidental (secondary) myiasis in humans, where the flies do not pierce the skin but invade an open wound.
The first record of human miasis caused by C. megacephala and C. rufifacies was in Thailand, where a 53-year-old man had a tumor lesion where the larvae accumulated. Most recorded miasis cases, however, do not involve the fly.
C. megacephala is a carrier of pathogens, such as bacteria, protozoan cysts, and helminth eggs, to human food, because it lays its eggs on human feces, and will land on human food soon after.
The flies also cause a huge economic problem in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. In these areas sun-drying is the major method of preserving fish, as ice is typically unaffordable. However, blowfly larvae tend to infect these sun-dried fish when the weather is warm and humid. In an experiment, 95% of the infecting flies were found to be C. megacephala. The flies can be controlled by using an odor that the flies are attracted to trap them. Insecticides are also used, although this results in the development of resistance.
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Chrysomya
Species: C. megacephala
Binomial name Chrysomya megacephala
(Fabricius, 1794)
Braconid zombrus
Braconid Wasp
Braconid Wasp
Shot taken at Chestnut nature 2020
The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed.
The Braconidae are currently divided into about 47 subfamilies and over 1000 genera.
Females often have long ovipositors, an organ that largely varies interspecifically. This variation is closely related to the host species upon which the wasp deposits its egg. Species that parasitize microlepidopterans, for instance, have longer ovipositors, presumably to reach the caterpillar through layers of plant tissue. Some wasps also have long ovipositors to bypass caterpillar defense mechanisms such as spines or hairs, or to reach deeply-burrowed Coleoptera larvae in tree trunks.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Ichneumonoidea
Species : Zombrus sp
Family: Braconidae
The Braconidae are currently divided into about 47 subfamilies and over 1000 genera.
Females often have long ovipositors, an organ that largely varies interspecifically. This variation is closely related to the host species upon which the wasp deposits its egg. Species that parasitize microlepidopterans, for instance, have longer ovipositors, presumably to reach the caterpillar through layers of plant tissue. Some wasps also have long ovipositors to bypass caterpillar defense mechanisms such as spines or hairs, or to reach deeply-burrowed Coleoptera larvae in tree trunks.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Ichneumonoidea
Species : Zombrus sp
Family: Braconidae
Mecopoda nipponensis
Mecopodinae, the long-legged katydids, are a subfamily of bush crickets found in western South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. In Asia, the distribution includes India, Indochina, Japan, the Philippines, and Malesia to Papua New Guinea and Australasia, including many Pacific islands.
Mecopodinae is a paraphyletic grouping that is sister to Phaneropterinae and Pseudophyllinae.
Although as of December 2018, Orthoptera Species File places Mecopodinae within the family Tettigoniidae, the family Phaneropteridae has been recommended for reinstatement, with subfamilies Mecopodinae, Pseudophyllinae, Phyllophorinae, and Phaneropterinae.
Mecopodinae is part of the Phaneropteroid clade, characterized by their leaf-like forms. The subfamily is widespread, mostly in tropical areas.
Mecopoda is the type genus of bush crickets of the subfamily Mecopodinae. Species can be found in India, China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Malaysia,
Singapore and Melanesia.
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Superfamily: Tettigonioide
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Mecopodinae
Species : Mecopoda nipponensis
Genus: Mecopoda
Serville, 1831
Mecopodinae is a paraphyletic grouping that is sister to Phaneropterinae and Pseudophyllinae.
Although as of December 2018, Orthoptera Species File places Mecopodinae within the family Tettigoniidae, the family Phaneropteridae has been recommended for reinstatement, with subfamilies Mecopodinae, Pseudophyllinae, Phyllophorinae, and Phaneropterinae.
Mecopodinae is part of the Phaneropteroid clade, characterized by their leaf-like forms. The subfamily is widespread, mostly in tropical areas.
Mecopoda is the type genus of bush crickets of the subfamily Mecopodinae. Species can be found in India, China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Malaysia,
Singapore and Melanesia.
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Superfamily: Tettigonioide
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Mecopodinae
Species : Mecopoda nipponensis
Genus: Mecopoda
Serville, 1831
Polyrchachis lacteipennis
Polyrhachis lacteipennis, this species nests inside the trunks of date palm trees. Several additional workers were found in leaf litter under date palm trees where the soil was loose and dry (Sharaf et al., 2018). Pashaei Rad et al. (2018) found this species in Iran in a very low rainfall area. It is also found in tropical country Singapore.
The workers of Polyrhachis lacteipennis vary from 4.5-7.0 mm in body length. They are black in colour with the head and thorax finely punctured and granulate. Pubescence is almost entirely absent except for a few scattered erect hairs on the front of the head and on the apical segments of the gaster. Head is broadly oval; clypeus has a distinct medial vertical carina and is briefly lobed; antennal carinae wide apart and not divergent. They have three pairs of spines: pronotal spines are very short, thick and directed obliquely outwards; propodeal (or metanotal) spines are erect and divergent with the tip slightly bent outwards; two large petiolar spines curved to the shape of the gaster on the upper lateral angles with two obtuse or very small teeth between them. Gaster is short, opaque and globose (modified from Bingham 1903)
These ants construct carton nests at the base of trees, by cementing twigs with their salivary exudates. They are one of the most commonly encountered ants in the urban regions of South India (Narendra & Kumar 2006).
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe:Camponotini
Genus: Polyrhachis
Subgenus:Myrmhopla
Species: P. lacteipennis
Binomial name Polyrhachis lacteipennis
Smith, F., 1858
The workers of Polyrhachis lacteipennis vary from 4.5-7.0 mm in body length. They are black in colour with the head and thorax finely punctured and granulate. Pubescence is almost entirely absent except for a few scattered erect hairs on the front of the head and on the apical segments of the gaster. Head is broadly oval; clypeus has a distinct medial vertical carina and is briefly lobed; antennal carinae wide apart and not divergent. They have three pairs of spines: pronotal spines are very short, thick and directed obliquely outwards; propodeal (or metanotal) spines are erect and divergent with the tip slightly bent outwards; two large petiolar spines curved to the shape of the gaster on the upper lateral angles with two obtuse or very small teeth between them. Gaster is short, opaque and globose (modified from Bingham 1903)
These ants construct carton nests at the base of trees, by cementing twigs with their salivary exudates. They are one of the most commonly encountered ants in the urban regions of South India (Narendra & Kumar 2006).
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe:Camponotini
Genus: Polyrhachis
Subgenus:Myrmhopla
Species: P. lacteipennis
Binomial name Polyrhachis lacteipennis
Smith, F., 1858
Pseudophoraspis nebulosa
Dried Leaf Cockroach
Dried Leaf Cockroach
Giant cockroaches, or blaberids (family Blaberidae) are the second-largest cockroach family by number of species. Pseudophoraspis is a genus of cockroaches.
Pseudophoraspis nebulosa is a genus of cockroaches in the family Blaberidae. It's body emits ultra violet.
P. nebulosa is a species of forest cockroaches and can be found within the forest ground, species were reported from Southeast Asia and South Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Genus: Pseudophoraspis
Kirby, 1903
Species : Pseudophoraspis nebulosa
Pseudophoraspis nebulosa is a genus of cockroaches in the family Blaberidae. It's body emits ultra violet.
P. nebulosa is a species of forest cockroaches and can be found within the forest ground, species were reported from Southeast Asia and South Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Blattodea
Family: Blaberidae
Genus: Pseudophoraspis
Kirby, 1903
Species : Pseudophoraspis nebulosa
Utra violet effect
Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata
Shot in Thailand village Sakon Nakhon
Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata, the large brown cicada, is a species of cicada in the genus Graptopsaltria of the family Cicadidae found across East Asia, including Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and China. They are called aburazemi (アブラゼミ) in Japanese. The males make a loud chirping that ends with a click caused by a flick of the wings.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Cicadomorpha
Superfamily: Cicadoidea
Family: Cicadidae
Subfamily: Tibiceninae
Tribe: Polyneurini
Genus: Graptopsaltria
Species: G. nigrofuscata
Binomial name Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Cicadomorpha
Superfamily: Cicadoidea
Family: Cicadidae
Subfamily: Tibiceninae
Tribe: Polyneurini
Genus: Graptopsaltria
Species: G. nigrofuscata
Binomial name Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata
Provespa
Night wasps
Night wasps
Shot at Chestnut Nature.
Provespa is a small genus of Vespidae, made up of nocturnal wasps from Southeast Asia, sometimes referred to as "night wasps" or "night hornets", though they are not true hornets (genus Vespa).
They are the only nocturnal members of the subfamily
Vespinae, and also the only vespines where new colonies are formed by swarming (one queen attended by a large number of workers, similar to honey bees).
They tend to build their nests from fibrous plant material, making them a uniform greyish brown colour which is often difficult to locate.
Provespa anomala is a species of Hymenoptera in the family Vespidae. They are diurnal.
Provespa anomala is a true wasp that is seldom seen during the day.
It is considered to be a relatively uncommon species in Singapore that inhabits forested areas.
Although it forages at night, it is also attracted by artificial lights, and known to enter buildings. Any disturbance to the nest will cause the adult wasps to rush out onto its surface.
Wasps don’t lose their stinger when they attack, so they usually have no problem stinging more than once. “When threatened, wasps will sting readily, and can sting you multiple times,”
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Vespidae
Subfamily: Vespinae
Genus: Provespa
Ashmead, 1903
Type species: Provespa anomala (de Saussure, 1854)
They are the only nocturnal members of the subfamily
Vespinae, and also the only vespines where new colonies are formed by swarming (one queen attended by a large number of workers, similar to honey bees).
They tend to build their nests from fibrous plant material, making them a uniform greyish brown colour which is often difficult to locate.
Provespa anomala is a species of Hymenoptera in the family Vespidae. They are diurnal.
Provespa anomala is a true wasp that is seldom seen during the day.
It is considered to be a relatively uncommon species in Singapore that inhabits forested areas.
Although it forages at night, it is also attracted by artificial lights, and known to enter buildings. Any disturbance to the nest will cause the adult wasps to rush out onto its surface.
Wasps don’t lose their stinger when they attack, so they usually have no problem stinging more than once. “When threatened, wasps will sting readily, and can sting you multiple times,”
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Vespidae
Subfamily: Vespinae
Genus: Provespa
Ashmead, 1903
Type species: Provespa anomala (de Saussure, 1854)
Gryllacrididae
Raspy crickets
Raspy crickets
Gryllacrididae are a family of non-jumping insects in the suborder Ensifera occurring worldwide, known commonly as leaf-rolling crickets or raspy crickets.
The family historically has been broadly defined to include what are presently several other families, such as Stenopelmatidae ("Jerusalem crickets") and Rhaphidophoridae ("camel crickets"), now considered separate.
As presently defined, the family contains two subfamilies: Gryllacridinae and Hyperbaeninae.
They are commonly wingless and nocturnal. In the daytime, most species rest in shelters made from folded leaves sewn with silk. Some species use silk to burrow in sand, earth or wood. Raspy crickets evolved the ability to produce silk independently from other insects, but their silk has many convergent features to silkworm silk, being made of long, repetitive proteins with an extended beta-sheet structure.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Superfamily: Stenopelmatoidea
Family: Gryllacrididae
Blanchard, 1845
Subfamilies
Gryllacridinae
Hyperbaeninae
The family historically has been broadly defined to include what are presently several other families, such as Stenopelmatidae ("Jerusalem crickets") and Rhaphidophoridae ("camel crickets"), now considered separate.
As presently defined, the family contains two subfamilies: Gryllacridinae and Hyperbaeninae.
They are commonly wingless and nocturnal. In the daytime, most species rest in shelters made from folded leaves sewn with silk. Some species use silk to burrow in sand, earth or wood. Raspy crickets evolved the ability to produce silk independently from other insects, but their silk has many convergent features to silkworm silk, being made of long, repetitive proteins with an extended beta-sheet structure.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Superfamily: Stenopelmatoidea
Family: Gryllacrididae
Blanchard, 1845
Subfamilies
Gryllacridinae
Hyperbaeninae
Pseudophyllinae
True kadydids
True kadydids
The subfamily Pseudophyllinae contains numerous species in the family Tettigoniidae, the katydids or bush crickets. Sometimes called "true katydids"[citation needed], together with the crickets of suborder Ensifera, they form part of the insect order Orthoptera which also contains grasshoppers.
Members of the group are noted for their remarkable camouflage. They closely resemble dried leaves, including veins, various blotches and even bite marks.
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Pseudophyllinae
Burmeister, 1840
Tribes
Members of the group are noted for their remarkable camouflage. They closely resemble dried leaves, including veins, various blotches and even bite marks.
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Pseudophyllinae
Burmeister, 1840
Tribes
Yellow Crazy Ant
The yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) is a species of ant, introduced accidentally to northern Australia and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, that has caused ecological damage in both locations and is now found in the northern suburbs of Brisbane.
It is colloquially called "crazy" because of its erratic movements when disturbed. Its long legs and antennae make it one of the largest invasive ant species in the world.
Like several other invasive ants, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), the big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala), the little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), and the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), this is a "tramp ant", a species that easily becomes established and dominant in new habitat due to traits such as aggression toward other ant species, little aggression toward members of its own species, efficient recruitment, and large colony size.
Also known as the long-legged ant or Maldive ant, it is on a list of "one hundred of the world's worst invasive species" formulated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It has invaded ecosystems from Hawaii to Seychelles, and formed supercolonies on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.
The yellow crazy ant’s natural habitat is not known, but it has been speculated that the species originated in East Africa. It has been introduced into a wide range of tropical and subtropical environments including Caribbean islands, some Indian Ocean islands (Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, the Cocos Islands and the Christmas Islands) and some Pacific islands (New Caledonia, Hawaii, French Polynesia, Okinawa, Vanuatu, Micronesia and the Galapagos archipelago).
The species has been known to occupy agricultural systems such as cinnamon, citrus, coffee and coconut plantations. Because the ant has generalized nesting habits, they are able to disperse via trucks, boats and other forms of human transport.
Crazy ant colonies naturally disperse through “budding”, i.e. when mated queens and workers leave the nest to establish a new one, and only rarely through flight via female winged reproductive forms.
Generally, colonies that disperse through “budding” have a lower rate of dispersal and need human intervention to reach distant areas. It has been recorded that A. gracilipes moves as much as 400 m (1,300 ft) a year in Seychelles.
A survey on Christmas Island, however, yielded an average spreading speed of three meters a day, the equivalent of one kilometre a year.
A. gracilipes has been described as a “scavenging predator” and has a broad diet, a characteristic of many invasive species. It consumes a wide variety of foods, including grains, seeds, arthropods, and decaying matter, including vertebrate corpses.
They have been reported to attack and dismember invertebrates such as small isopods, myriapods, molluscs, arachnids, land crabs, earthworms and insects.
Like all ants, A. gracilipes requires a protein-rich food source for the queen to lay eggs and carbohydrates as energy for the workers. They get their carbohydrates from plant nectar and honeydew producing insects, especially scale insects, aphids, and other Sternorrhyncha.
Studies indicate that crazy ants rely so much on the scale insects that scarcity of them can actually limit ant population growth.
Crazy ants get much of their food requirements from scale insects, serious plant pests that feed on sap of trees and release honeydew, a sugary liquid.
Ants eat honeydew, and in return protect the scale from their enemies and spread them among trees, an example of mutualism. The honeydew not eaten by ants drips onto the trees and encourages the growth of sooty mold over the leaves and stems. This gives plants an ugly black appearance and reduces their health and vigour.
The ants protect the insects by "nannying" the mobile crawler stages and protecting them against their natural enemies. Experiments have shown that this connection is so strong that, in environments where A. gracilipes was removed, the density of scale insects dropped by 67% within 11 weeks, and to zero after 12 months.
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Genus: Anoplolepis
Species: A. gracilipes
Binomial name Anoplolepis gracilipes
It is colloquially called "crazy" because of its erratic movements when disturbed. Its long legs and antennae make it one of the largest invasive ant species in the world.
Like several other invasive ants, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), the big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala), the little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), and the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), this is a "tramp ant", a species that easily becomes established and dominant in new habitat due to traits such as aggression toward other ant species, little aggression toward members of its own species, efficient recruitment, and large colony size.
Also known as the long-legged ant or Maldive ant, it is on a list of "one hundred of the world's worst invasive species" formulated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It has invaded ecosystems from Hawaii to Seychelles, and formed supercolonies on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.
The yellow crazy ant’s natural habitat is not known, but it has been speculated that the species originated in East Africa. It has been introduced into a wide range of tropical and subtropical environments including Caribbean islands, some Indian Ocean islands (Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, the Cocos Islands and the Christmas Islands) and some Pacific islands (New Caledonia, Hawaii, French Polynesia, Okinawa, Vanuatu, Micronesia and the Galapagos archipelago).
The species has been known to occupy agricultural systems such as cinnamon, citrus, coffee and coconut plantations. Because the ant has generalized nesting habits, they are able to disperse via trucks, boats and other forms of human transport.
Crazy ant colonies naturally disperse through “budding”, i.e. when mated queens and workers leave the nest to establish a new one, and only rarely through flight via female winged reproductive forms.
Generally, colonies that disperse through “budding” have a lower rate of dispersal and need human intervention to reach distant areas. It has been recorded that A. gracilipes moves as much as 400 m (1,300 ft) a year in Seychelles.
A survey on Christmas Island, however, yielded an average spreading speed of three meters a day, the equivalent of one kilometre a year.
A. gracilipes has been described as a “scavenging predator” and has a broad diet, a characteristic of many invasive species. It consumes a wide variety of foods, including grains, seeds, arthropods, and decaying matter, including vertebrate corpses.
They have been reported to attack and dismember invertebrates such as small isopods, myriapods, molluscs, arachnids, land crabs, earthworms and insects.
Like all ants, A. gracilipes requires a protein-rich food source for the queen to lay eggs and carbohydrates as energy for the workers. They get their carbohydrates from plant nectar and honeydew producing insects, especially scale insects, aphids, and other Sternorrhyncha.
Studies indicate that crazy ants rely so much on the scale insects that scarcity of them can actually limit ant population growth.
Crazy ants get much of their food requirements from scale insects, serious plant pests that feed on sap of trees and release honeydew, a sugary liquid.
Ants eat honeydew, and in return protect the scale from their enemies and spread them among trees, an example of mutualism. The honeydew not eaten by ants drips onto the trees and encourages the growth of sooty mold over the leaves and stems. This gives plants an ugly black appearance and reduces their health and vigour.
The ants protect the insects by "nannying" the mobile crawler stages and protecting them against their natural enemies. Experiments have shown that this connection is so strong that, in environments where A. gracilipes was removed, the density of scale insects dropped by 67% within 11 weeks, and to zero after 12 months.
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Genus: Anoplolepis
Species: A. gracilipes
Binomial name Anoplolepis gracilipes
Dinomyrmex gigas
Giant forest ant
Giant forest ant
Dinomyrmex is a monotypic genus of ant containing the species Dinomyrmex gigas or giant forest ant. D. gigas is a large species of ant, native to Southeast Asian forests.
It is one of the largest ants in existence, measuring in at 20.9 mm (0.82 in) for normal workers, and 28.1 mm (1.11 in) for the soldiers. Honeydew makes up 90% of their diet, but they will also consume insects and bird droppings. The ant is an effective forager, utilizing both efficient communication and recruitment. A handful of these ants may meet at night to engage in what has been observed to be ritual battle. These fights can continue for several months.
Colonies consist of typically about 7,000 workers, distributed unevenly among several nests. There are two types of workers, with the larger ones almost three times as heavy. They forage mainly at night, however, some workers will be outside the nest during the day.
This species is found in Southeast Asian rain forests from Sumatra, Singapore, Malaysia, Borneo to Thailand.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe: Camponotini
Genus: Dinomyrmex
Species: D. gigas
Binomial name Dinomyrmex gigas
(Latreille, 1802)
It is one of the largest ants in existence, measuring in at 20.9 mm (0.82 in) for normal workers, and 28.1 mm (1.11 in) for the soldiers. Honeydew makes up 90% of their diet, but they will also consume insects and bird droppings. The ant is an effective forager, utilizing both efficient communication and recruitment. A handful of these ants may meet at night to engage in what has been observed to be ritual battle. These fights can continue for several months.
Colonies consist of typically about 7,000 workers, distributed unevenly among several nests. There are two types of workers, with the larger ones almost three times as heavy. They forage mainly at night, however, some workers will be outside the nest during the day.
This species is found in Southeast Asian rain forests from Sumatra, Singapore, Malaysia, Borneo to Thailand.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe: Camponotini
Genus: Dinomyrmex
Species: D. gigas
Binomial name Dinomyrmex gigas
(Latreille, 1802)
Pochazia Transversa
Ricaniidae is a family of planthopper insects, containing over 40 genera and 400 species worldwide. The highest diversity is in tropical Africa and Asia and in Australia, with a few species occurring in the Palearctic. It is one of the smaller families in the planthopper superfamily Fulgoroidea.
Pochazia is a genus of true bugs. Pochazia transversa is a species of planthoppers belonging to the family Ricaniidae. They are diurnal.
The species of this genus are found in Africa and Southeastern Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Ricaniidae
Subfamily: Ricaniinae
Genus: Pochazia
Species: P.transversa
Binomial name: Pochazia transversa Melichar, 1898
Pochazia is a genus of true bugs. Pochazia transversa is a species of planthoppers belonging to the family Ricaniidae. They are diurnal.
The species of this genus are found in Africa and Southeastern Asia.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Ricaniidae
Subfamily: Ricaniinae
Genus: Pochazia
Species: P.transversa
Binomial name: Pochazia transversa Melichar, 1898
Meliponines
Stingless bees
Stingless bees
Stingless bees, sometimes called stingless honey bees or simply meliponines, are a large group of bees, comprising the tribe Meliponini.
They belong in the family Apidae, and are closely related to common honey bees, carpenter bees, orchid bees, and bumblebees.
Meliponines have stingers, but they are highly reduced and cannot be used for defense, though these bees exhibit other defensive behaviors and mechanisms. Meliponines are not the only type of "stingless" bee; all male bees and many female bees of several other families, such as Andrenidae, also cannot sting. Some stingless bees have painful and powerful bites.
Stingless bees have been shown to be valuable pollinators of crops such as macadamias and mangos.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Clade: Corbiculata
Tribe: Meliponini
They belong in the family Apidae, and are closely related to common honey bees, carpenter bees, orchid bees, and bumblebees.
Meliponines have stingers, but they are highly reduced and cannot be used for defense, though these bees exhibit other defensive behaviors and mechanisms. Meliponines are not the only type of "stingless" bee; all male bees and many female bees of several other families, such as Andrenidae, also cannot sting. Some stingless bees have painful and powerful bites.
Stingless bees have been shown to be valuable pollinators of crops such as macadamias and mangos.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Clade: Corbiculata
Tribe: Meliponini
False lanternfly
Dictyophara nakanonis
Long Nosed Planthopper
Dictyophara nakanonis
Long Nosed Planthopper
Dictyopharidae is a family of bugs in the suborder
Auchenorrhyncha belonging to the infraorder
Fulgoromorpha. The family comprises nearly 760 species in more than 150 genera which are grouped into two subfamilies, Dictyopharinae and Orgeriinae.
Like all other fulgoroids, they have the antennae arising on the side of the head below the compound eye (not between the eyes as in the Cicadoidea). Many species have an elongated frons. Those that do not have this elongation may have 2 or 3 carinae (keels). The median ocellus is absent.
Dictyophara is a genus of planthoppers belonging to the family Dictyopharidae, subfamily Dictyopharinae. The scientific genus name Dictyophara derives from the Greek (dictyon: net and phorein: wear) and can be translated "who wears a net".
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Dictyopharidae
Subfamily: Dictyopharinae
Genus: Dictyophara
Species: nakanonis
Auchenorrhyncha belonging to the infraorder
Fulgoromorpha. The family comprises nearly 760 species in more than 150 genera which are grouped into two subfamilies, Dictyopharinae and Orgeriinae.
Like all other fulgoroids, they have the antennae arising on the side of the head below the compound eye (not between the eyes as in the Cicadoidea). Many species have an elongated frons. Those that do not have this elongation may have 2 or 3 carinae (keels). The median ocellus is absent.
Dictyophara is a genus of planthoppers belonging to the family Dictyopharidae, subfamily Dictyopharinae. The scientific genus name Dictyophara derives from the Greek (dictyon: net and phorein: wear) and can be translated "who wears a net".
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Dictyopharidae
Subfamily: Dictyopharinae
Genus: Dictyophara
Species: nakanonis
Bothrogonia addita
Orange leafhopper
Orange leafhopper
Bothrogonia is a genus of leafhopper with a large number of species distributed across the Old World. They can be told apart from others in their tribe by the pattern of setae on the hind tibia.
This bug is an orange leafhopper (Bothrogonia addita). It has no antennae. It has orange color of head, thorax and wing. There are some black spots over its head and thorax. At the margin of wings also has black color. The size of the body is about 10mm. It is from the family of Cicadellidae under genus of Bothrogonia.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Cicadomorpha
Superfamily: Membracoidea
Family: Cicadellidae
Subfamily: Cicadellinae
Genus: Bothrogonia
Species : B. addita
Binomial name : Bothrogonia addita (Walker ,1851)
This bug is an orange leafhopper (Bothrogonia addita). It has no antennae. It has orange color of head, thorax and wing. There are some black spots over its head and thorax. At the margin of wings also has black color. The size of the body is about 10mm. It is from the family of Cicadellidae under genus of Bothrogonia.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Cicadomorpha
Superfamily: Membracoidea
Family: Cicadellidae
Subfamily: Cicadellinae
Genus: Bothrogonia
Species : B. addita
Binomial name : Bothrogonia addita (Walker ,1851)
Perilampidae
The Perilampidae are a small family within the Chalcidoidea, composed mostly of hyperparasitoids. The family is closely related to the Eucharitidae, and the eucharitids appear to have evolved from within the Perilampidae, thus rendering the family paraphyletic (if the two families are joined in the future, the name with precedence is Eucharitidae). As presently defined, at least 15 genera and 270 species are described worldwide. They are often brilliantly metallic (especially blue or green), with robust mesosomae and a small, triangular metasomae(swollen and bulbous in the Philomidinae). They are generally very strongly sculptured. The prothorax is typically very broad and disc-like, and the labrum is multidigitate, a feature shared with the Eucharitidae.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Chalcidoidea
Family: Perilampidae Latreille, 1809
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Chalcidoidea
Family: Perilampidae Latreille, 1809
Urophora cardui
Urophora cardui or the Canada thistle gall fly is a fruit fly which, contrary to its common name, is indigenous to Central Europe from the United Kingdom east to near the Crimea, and from Swedensouth to the Mediterranean, it is also found in southeast asia Singapore.
The Canada thistle gall fly has been introduced to North America from Europe to control the population of its host plant, Canada, or creeping thistle, which is an invasive, introduced weed in North America.
The fly starts life as an egg, with from one to thirty, laid on the stems of its host plant, the Canada or creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), during the host's growing season. After hatching, the larvae burrow into the stem and form a gall (or swelling). During maturing, the larva will be 98% of its full body weight, and appear as an adult. The larvae pupate in early spring for 24 to 35 days in the gall and appear reddish brown. The fly escapes through a tunnel during June to October.
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Tephritidae
Genus: Urophora
Subgenus: Urophora
Species: U. cardui
Binomial name Urophora cardui
The Canada thistle gall fly has been introduced to North America from Europe to control the population of its host plant, Canada, or creeping thistle, which is an invasive, introduced weed in North America.
The fly starts life as an egg, with from one to thirty, laid on the stems of its host plant, the Canada or creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), during the host's growing season. After hatching, the larvae burrow into the stem and form a gall (or swelling). During maturing, the larva will be 98% of its full body weight, and appear as an adult. The larvae pupate in early spring for 24 to 35 days in the gall and appear reddish brown. The fly escapes through a tunnel during June to October.
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Tephritidae
Genus: Urophora
Subgenus: Urophora
Species: U. cardui
Binomial name Urophora cardui
Camponotus japonicus
Camponotus japonicus, more often known under the common name Japanese carpenter ant, is a species of ant native to East Asia. It is black, and one of the largest ants. A nest has about ten to thousands of individuals, and it can be a pest when it enters households or protects aphids. There are several subspecies of this ant in different areas of Asia.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus: Camponotus
Species: C. japonicus
Binomial name Camponotus japonicus
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus: Camponotus
Species: C. japonicus
Binomial name Camponotus japonicus
Tanna japonensis
The cicadas are a superfamily, the Cicadoidea, of insects in the order Hemiptera (true bugs). They are in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, along with smaller jumping bugs such as leafhoppers and froghoppers.
The superfamily is divided into two families, Tettigarctidae, with two species in Australia, and Cicadidae, with more than 3,000 species described from around the world; many species remain undescribed.
Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart, short antennae, and membranous front wings. They have an exceptionally loud song, produced in most species by the rapid buckling and unbuckling of drumlike tymbals. The earliest known fossil Cicadomorpha appeared in the Upper Permian period; extant species occur all around the world in temperate to tropical climates. They typically live in trees, feeding on watery sap from xylem tissue and laying their eggs in a slit in the bark. Most cicadas are cryptic. The vast majority of species are active during the day as adults, with some calling at dawn or dusk. Only a rare few species are known to be nocturnal.
One genus, the periodical cicadas spend most of their lives as underground nymphs, emerging only after 13 or 17 years. The unusual duration and timing of their emergence may reduce the number of cicadas lost to predation, both by making them a less reliably available prey (so that any predator who evolved to depend on cicadas for sustenance might starve waiting for their emergence), and by emerging in such huge numbers that they will satiate any remaining predators before losing enough of their number to threaten their survival as a species.
The annual cicadas are species that emerge every year. Though these cicadas have lifecycles that can vary from one to nine or more years as underground larvae, their emergence above ground as adults is not synchronized, so some members of each species appear every year.
Cicadas have been featured in literature since the time of Homer's Iliad, and as motifs in art from the Chinese Shang dynasty. They have also been used in myth and folklore as symbols of carefree living and immortality. The cicada is also mentioned in Hesiod's Shield (ll.393–394), its voice sings when millet first ripens. Cicadas are eaten by humans in various countries, including China, where the nymphs are served deep-fried in Shandong cuisine.
Tanna japonensis, also called the evening cicada or higurashi (Japanese: 蜩, 茅蜩, ひぐらし), is a species of cicada, a family of insects, and a member of the genus Tanna. It is distributed throughout East Asia, and is most common in Japan. Its shrill call can be heard most often in the morning and evening.
The adult male has a body length of 28–38 mm (1.1–1.5 in), the female is 21–25 mm (0.8–1.0 in). The male's abdomen is longer and thicker than that of the female, making it easy to distinguish between them. In addition, the intra-abdominal cavity of the male is more developed, giving it a more resonant call.
The body is coloured reddish-brown with green around the compound eye and in the centre and back of the thorax; mountain dwelling specimens tend to be darker.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Cicadidae
Genus: Tanna
Species: T. japonensis
Binomial name Tanna japonensis
Cyclochila australasiae
commonly known as the green grocer
commonly known as the green grocer
Cyclochila australasiae, commonly known as the green grocer, is a species of cicada and one of Australia's most familiar insects. It is distributed through coastal regions of southeastern Australia and is also found in South East Asia in Singapore .. It is one of the loudest insects in the world.
Cyclochila australasiae measures about 4 cm (1.6 in) in length, with a wingspan of 11–13 cm (4–5 in). Diverse colour forms are seen, the most common being predominantly green or brownish yellow. It has red eyes. The exuvia, or discarded empty exoskeleton of the nymph form, is commonly seen on tree trunks in gardens and bushland during the summer months.
The loud calls of the male are heard over the summer months; harsh and high-pitched, these may reach 120 decibels. The sound is made by the rapid buckling of the timbal ribs, and amplified by resonation in an air sac; the frequency is around 4.3 kHz. Calls occur in the afternoon and dusk of warm days.
The cicada spends seven years in nymph form drinking sap from plant roots underground before emerging from the earth as an adult. The adults, who live for six weeks, fly around, mate, and breed over the summer.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Cicadidae
Genus: Cyclochila
Species: C. australasiae
Binomial name Cyclochila australasiae
Cyclochila australasiae measures about 4 cm (1.6 in) in length, with a wingspan of 11–13 cm (4–5 in). Diverse colour forms are seen, the most common being predominantly green or brownish yellow. It has red eyes. The exuvia, or discarded empty exoskeleton of the nymph form, is commonly seen on tree trunks in gardens and bushland during the summer months.
The loud calls of the male are heard over the summer months; harsh and high-pitched, these may reach 120 decibels. The sound is made by the rapid buckling of the timbal ribs, and amplified by resonation in an air sac; the frequency is around 4.3 kHz. Calls occur in the afternoon and dusk of warm days.
The cicada spends seven years in nymph form drinking sap from plant roots underground before emerging from the earth as an adult. The adults, who live for six weeks, fly around, mate, and breed over the summer.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Cicadidae
Genus: Cyclochila
Species: C. australasiae
Binomial name Cyclochila australasiae
Traulia azureipennis
Black Forest Grasshopper
Black Forest Grasshopper
Traulia is a genus of grasshoppers in the subfamily Catantopinae; it was considered typical of tribe Trauliini, but is now placed in the tribe Mesambriini. A majority of species found in South-East Asia.
Traulia azureipennis is commonly known as the Black Forest Grasshopper. The male is black with yellow stripes and it has a antennae that end with white tip.
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Caelifera
Family: Acrididae
Tribe: Mesambriini
Genus: Traulia
Species : T. azureipennis
Binomial name Traulia azureipennis
Traulia azureipennis is commonly known as the Black Forest Grasshopper. The male is black with yellow stripes and it has a antennae that end with white tip.
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Caelifera
Family: Acrididae
Tribe: Mesambriini
Genus: Traulia
Species : T. azureipennis
Binomial name Traulia azureipennis
Conocephalus melaenus, 黑翅细蟴
Conocephalus melaenus, long horned grasshopper nymph, tiny red black cricket also know as black-kneed conehead or black-kneed meadow katydid is a species of Tettigoniidae found in China, Taiwan, Japan, Nepal, India, Indo-China and western Malesia and Singapore.
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Conocephalinae
Tribe: Conocephalini
Genus: Conocephalus
Subgenus: Anisoptera
Species: C. melaenus
Binomial name Conocephalus melaenus
Chinese name : 黑翅细蟴
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Tettigoniidae
Subfamily: Conocephalinae
Tribe: Conocephalini
Genus: Conocephalus
Subgenus: Anisoptera
Species: C. melaenus
Binomial name Conocephalus melaenus
Chinese name : 黑翅细蟴
Oecophylla smaragdina
common names include weaver ant, green ant, green tree ant, and orange gaster .
common names include weaver ant, green ant, green tree ant, and orange gaster .
Oecophylla smaragdina (common names include weaver ant, green ant, green tree ant, and orange gaster) is a species of arboreal ant found in tropical Asia and Australia. These ants form colonies with multiple nests in trees, each nest being made of leaves stitched together using the silk produced by the ant larvae.
Workers and major workers are mostly coloured orange. Workers are 5–6 millimetres (0.20–0.24 in) long; they look after larvae and farm scale bugs for honeydew. Major workers are 8–10 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) long, with long strong legs and large mandibles. They forage, assemble and expand the nest. Queens are typically 20–25 millimetres (0.8–1.0 in) long, and normally greenish-brown.
Oecophylla smaragdina has a widespread distribution in tropical Asia and Australia, its range extending from India through Indonesia and the Philippines to Northern Territory and Queensland in Australia. It is an arboreal species, making its nests among the foliage of trees. Nests are constructed during the night, with major workers weaving towards the exterior and minor workers completing the interior structure.
The ant colony may have several nests in one tree, or the nests may be spread over several adjacent trees. Each colony has a single queen in one of these nests, and her progeny are carried to other nests of the colony. The average life of a mature colony may be eight years.
Weaver ants of this species are important parts of the ecosystem in tree canopies in humid tropical regions. The nests of this species are constructed by the workers, with leaves being woven together and secured by silk produced by the larvae.
First a row of ants line up along the edge of a green leaf and, grasping a nearby leaf, pull the two leaves together, edge to edge. Other workers on the far side of the leaves, each carrying a larva in its mouth, apply the tips of the abdomens of the larvae to each leaf edge in turn. This produces a suture of fine silken threads that secures the leaves together. More leaves are attached in a similar manner to enlarge the nest.
Weaver ants feed on insects and other invertebrates, their prey being mainly beetles, flies and Hymenoptera ns. They do not sting, but have a painful bite into which they can secrete irritant chemicals from their abdomens.
In Singapore, colonies are often found in sea hibiscus and great morinda trees which entice the ants with nectar, the trees in return receiving protection from herbivorous insects.
In Indonesia, the trees supporting colonies include banana, coconut, oil palm, rubber tree, cacao, teak, jackfruit, mango, Chinese laurel, petai, jengkol, duku, rambutan, jambuair and kedondong.
The ants also attend aphids, scale insects and other homopterans to feed on the honeydew they produce, especially in tree canopies linked by lianas. For this purpose, they drive away other ant species from the parts of the canopy where these sap-sucking insects live. Another association is with the larvae of certain blue butterflies In Australia, the common oak-blue, the bright oak-blue and the purple oak-blue are obligate associates and only occur in parts of the country where the weaver ant is established. Shelters may be built by the ants close to their nests specially to protect these assets.
The larvae and pupae are collected and processed into bird food and fish bait in Indonesia, are used in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine, and consumed as a delicacy in Thailand and other countries.
In Java, Indonesia the larvae and pupae of these ants are known as kroto and are harvested commercially for use as captive songbird food and as fishing bait. Songbirds are very popular in Java and the ant larvae provide a good balanced diet of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Kroto can be bought from pet shops or can be gathered fresh from the countryside. As bait for fish, the larvae are mixed with chicken eggs, maize, beans and honey.
In India, the adult ants are used in traditional medicine as a remedy for rheumatism, and an oil made from them is used for stomach infections and as an aphrodisiac.
In Thailand and the Philippines the larvae and pupae are eaten and are said to have a taste variously described as creamy, sour and lemony.
In some parts of this ant's range, colonies are used as a natural form of pest control. Crops that have been protected in this way have included cowpea, cashew, citrus, mango, coconut, cocoa and coffee. The ants are aggressive towards humans.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus:Oecophylla
Species: O. smaragdina
Binomial name Oecophylla smaragdina
Workers and major workers are mostly coloured orange. Workers are 5–6 millimetres (0.20–0.24 in) long; they look after larvae and farm scale bugs for honeydew. Major workers are 8–10 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) long, with long strong legs and large mandibles. They forage, assemble and expand the nest. Queens are typically 20–25 millimetres (0.8–1.0 in) long, and normally greenish-brown.
Oecophylla smaragdina has a widespread distribution in tropical Asia and Australia, its range extending from India through Indonesia and the Philippines to Northern Territory and Queensland in Australia. It is an arboreal species, making its nests among the foliage of trees. Nests are constructed during the night, with major workers weaving towards the exterior and minor workers completing the interior structure.
The ant colony may have several nests in one tree, or the nests may be spread over several adjacent trees. Each colony has a single queen in one of these nests, and her progeny are carried to other nests of the colony. The average life of a mature colony may be eight years.
Weaver ants of this species are important parts of the ecosystem in tree canopies in humid tropical regions. The nests of this species are constructed by the workers, with leaves being woven together and secured by silk produced by the larvae.
First a row of ants line up along the edge of a green leaf and, grasping a nearby leaf, pull the two leaves together, edge to edge. Other workers on the far side of the leaves, each carrying a larva in its mouth, apply the tips of the abdomens of the larvae to each leaf edge in turn. This produces a suture of fine silken threads that secures the leaves together. More leaves are attached in a similar manner to enlarge the nest.
Weaver ants feed on insects and other invertebrates, their prey being mainly beetles, flies and Hymenoptera ns. They do not sting, but have a painful bite into which they can secrete irritant chemicals from their abdomens.
In Singapore, colonies are often found in sea hibiscus and great morinda trees which entice the ants with nectar, the trees in return receiving protection from herbivorous insects.
In Indonesia, the trees supporting colonies include banana, coconut, oil palm, rubber tree, cacao, teak, jackfruit, mango, Chinese laurel, petai, jengkol, duku, rambutan, jambuair and kedondong.
The ants also attend aphids, scale insects and other homopterans to feed on the honeydew they produce, especially in tree canopies linked by lianas. For this purpose, they drive away other ant species from the parts of the canopy where these sap-sucking insects live. Another association is with the larvae of certain blue butterflies In Australia, the common oak-blue, the bright oak-blue and the purple oak-blue are obligate associates and only occur in parts of the country where the weaver ant is established. Shelters may be built by the ants close to their nests specially to protect these assets.
The larvae and pupae are collected and processed into bird food and fish bait in Indonesia, are used in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine, and consumed as a delicacy in Thailand and other countries.
In Java, Indonesia the larvae and pupae of these ants are known as kroto and are harvested commercially for use as captive songbird food and as fishing bait. Songbirds are very popular in Java and the ant larvae provide a good balanced diet of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Kroto can be bought from pet shops or can be gathered fresh from the countryside. As bait for fish, the larvae are mixed with chicken eggs, maize, beans and honey.
In India, the adult ants are used in traditional medicine as a remedy for rheumatism, and an oil made from them is used for stomach infections and as an aphrodisiac.
In Thailand and the Philippines the larvae and pupae are eaten and are said to have a taste variously described as creamy, sour and lemony.
In some parts of this ant's range, colonies are used as a natural form of pest control. Crops that have been protected in this way have included cowpea, cashew, citrus, mango, coconut, cocoa and coffee. The ants are aggressive towards humans.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Genus:Oecophylla
Species: O. smaragdina
Binomial name Oecophylla smaragdina
Here the larvae and pupae are collected and processed into food and consumed as a delicacy in Thailand and other countries.
Sphex pensylvanicus
A species of digger wasp,
A species of digger wasp,
Sphex pensylvanicus is a species of digger wasp, commonly known as the great black wasp. It lives across most of North America and grows to a size of 20–35 mm (0.8–1.4 in) it is also found in Asia country like Singapore. The great black wasp digs their nest into the ground. They are generally solitary wasps who do not create huge colonies like other species, although their nests can have multiple larvae and they may lay multiple eggs.
Sphex pensylvanicus is a large, black wasp, significantly larger than their congener Sphex ichneumoneus (the great golden digger wasp). Males are smaller than females, at only 19–28 mm (0.7–1.1 in) long compared with typical female sizes of 25–34 mm (1.0–1.3 in).
Adult females of S. pensylvanicus build an underground nest which they provision with various orthopteran insects, particularly of the genera Microcentrum, Amblycorypha and Scudderia.
Prey are stung three times, once in the neck and twice in the thorax, and are paralyzed by the wasp's sting, although they can survive for weeks. The prey are then carried to the nest. While collecting their prey, the females are vulnerable to kleptoparasitism, in which birds, including the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and the grey catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), steal the prey that the wasp has collected.
The eggs of S. pensylvanicus are 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) long and 1 mm (0.04 in) wide; they are glued to the underside of the prey insect between the first and second pairs of legs. Each of the several chambers in the nest houses a single larva, which consumes 2–6 katydids or grasshoppers. The larval stage lasts 10 days, reaching a pre-pupation size of 30–35 mm (1.2–1.4 in) long by 7–10 mm (0.28–0.39 in) wide.
S. pensylvanicus is an important pollinator of plants including the milkweeds Asclepias syriaca and A. incarnata. It has also been reported on Daucus carota, Eryngium yuccifolium, Melilotus albus, and Pycnanthemum virginianum, S. pensylvanicus is one of several species of Sphex to be parasitized by the strepsipteran Paraxenos westwoodi.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Sphecidae
Genus: Sphex
Species: S. pensylvanicus
Binomial name Sphex pensylvanicus
Sphex pensylvanicus is a large, black wasp, significantly larger than their congener Sphex ichneumoneus (the great golden digger wasp). Males are smaller than females, at only 19–28 mm (0.7–1.1 in) long compared with typical female sizes of 25–34 mm (1.0–1.3 in).
Adult females of S. pensylvanicus build an underground nest which they provision with various orthopteran insects, particularly of the genera Microcentrum, Amblycorypha and Scudderia.
Prey are stung three times, once in the neck and twice in the thorax, and are paralyzed by the wasp's sting, although they can survive for weeks. The prey are then carried to the nest. While collecting their prey, the females are vulnerable to kleptoparasitism, in which birds, including the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and the grey catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), steal the prey that the wasp has collected.
The eggs of S. pensylvanicus are 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) long and 1 mm (0.04 in) wide; they are glued to the underside of the prey insect between the first and second pairs of legs. Each of the several chambers in the nest houses a single larva, which consumes 2–6 katydids or grasshoppers. The larval stage lasts 10 days, reaching a pre-pupation size of 30–35 mm (1.2–1.4 in) long by 7–10 mm (0.28–0.39 in) wide.
S. pensylvanicus is an important pollinator of plants including the milkweeds Asclepias syriaca and A. incarnata. It has also been reported on Daucus carota, Eryngium yuccifolium, Melilotus albus, and Pycnanthemum virginianum, S. pensylvanicus is one of several species of Sphex to be parasitized by the strepsipteran Paraxenos westwoodi.
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Sphecidae
Genus: Sphex
Species: S. pensylvanicus
Binomial name Sphex pensylvanicus